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absentmindedness
the inattentive or shallow encoding of events
amnesia
a deficit in long-term memory-resulting from disease, brain injury, or psychological trauma- in which the individual loses the ability to retrieve vast quantities of information
anterograde amnesia
a condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories
blocking
the temporary inability to remember something
chunking
organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember
consolidation
the gradual process of memory storage in the brain
cryptomnesia
a type of misattribution that occurs when people think they have come up with a new idea yet have retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source
encoding
the process by which the perception of a stimulus or event gets transformed into a memory
encoding specificity principle
the idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience
episodic memory
memory for ones past experiences that are identifies by a time and place
explicit memory
memory that is consciously retrieved
flashbulb memories
vivid episodic memories for the circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event
implicit memory
memory that is expressed through responses, actions, or reactions
long-term memory
the storage of information that lasts from minutes to forever
long-term potentiation (LTP)
strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons
memory
the ability to store and retrieve information
memory bias
the changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes
mnemonics
learning aids or strategies that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues
persistence
the continual recurrence of unwanted memories
priming
a facilitation in the response to a stimulus due to recent experience with that stimulus or a related stimulus
proactive interference
interference that occurs when prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves skills and habits
prospective memory
remembering to do something at some future time
reconsolidation
the re-storage of memory after retrieval
retrieval cue
any stimulus that promotes memory recall
retrieval-induced forgetting
impairment of the ability to recall an item in the future after retrieving a related item from long-term memory
retroactive interference
interference that occurs when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information
retrograde amnesia
a condition in which people lose past memories, such as memories for events, facts, people, or even personal information
schemas
cognitive structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, and understand information
semantic memory
memory for facts independent of personal experience
sensory memory
a memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form
serial position effect
the finding that the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, such that items presented early or late in the list are remembered better than those in the middle
source amnesia
a type of misattribution that occurs when people have a memory for an event but cannot remember where they have encountered the information
source misattribution
memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory
suggestibility
the development of biased memories from misleading information
working memory
a limited-capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use
affective forecasting
the tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future
analogical representations
mental representations that have some of what they represent
anchoring
the tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind
aphasia
a language disorder that results in deficits in language comprehension and production
availability heuristic
making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
cognition
the mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking
concept
a category, or class, of related items consisting of mental representations of those items
crystallized intelligence
intelligence that reflects both the knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge
decision making
a cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action or belief from several options
deep structure
in language, the implicit meanings of sentences
emotional intelligence
a form of social intelligence that emphasizes managing, recognizing, and understanding emotions and using them to guide appropriate though and action
exemplar model
a way of thinking about concepts: All members of a category are examples(exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership
fluid intelligence
intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, understand relationships, and think logically, particularly in novel or complex circumstances
framing
in decision making, an emphasis on the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative
functional fixedness
in problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects
general intelligence
the idea that one general factor underlies intelligence
heuristics
shortcuts used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions
insight
the sudden realization of a solution to a problem
intelligence
the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges
intelligence quotient (IQ)
an index of intelligence computed by dividing a child’s estimated mental age by the child’s chronological age, then multiplying the number by 100
language
a system of communication using sounds and symbols according to grammatical rules
linguistic relativity theory
the claim that language determines thought
mental age
an assessment of a child’s intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child’s test score with the average score for children of each chronological age
mental sets
problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past
morphemes
the smallest language units that have meaning, including suffixes and prefixes
phonemes
the basic sounds of speech, the building blocks of language
phonics
a method of teaching reading in English that focuses on the association between letters and their phonemes
problem solving
finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal
prototype
a way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example -a prototype- for that category
representativeness heuristic
placing a person or an object in a category if that person or object is similar to ones prototype for that category
restructuring
a new way of thinking about a problem that aids a solution
script
a schema that directs behavior over time within a situation
stereotypes
cognitive schema’s that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups
surface structure
in language, the sound and order of words
symbolic representations
abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas
telegraphic speech
the way toddlers speak, using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning
thinking
the mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world
Wernicke’s area
an area of the left hemisphere where the temporal and parietal lobes meet, involved in speech comprehension
equipotentiality
the principle that any conditioned stimulus paired with any unconditioned stimulus should result in learning
phobia
an acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of an object or situation
fear conditioning
a type of classical conditioning that turns neutral stimuli into threatening stimuli
modeling
the imitation of observed behavior
vicarious learning
learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action
instructed learning
learning associations and behaviors through verbal communication