A&P Lecture Exam 1

What are the different methods to examine the body?

inspection, palpation, auscultation, percussion

what is “auscultating” the body entail?

listening to bodily sounds during an exam typically with a stethoscope

what does a “percussion” exam entail?

method of tapping body parts with hands, or small instruments as part of a physical examination

what is the definition of physiology?

the study of function

what are the subdisciplines of physiology?

neurophysiology, endocrinology, pathophysiology

what is neurophysiology?

physiology of the nervous system

what is endocrinology?

physiology of hormones

what is pathophysiology?

mechanisms of disease

what is comparative physiology?

the study of different species to learn about body functions

what is comparative physiology the basis for in human anatomy?

for understanding human physiology, the development of new drugs, and the development of new medical procedures

what are the common points/characteristics of life?

cellular organization, reproduction, metabolism, homeostasis, heredity, response to stimuli, growth and development, & adaption through evolution

what are the basic structures of atoms?

proton, neutron, and electron

where in an atom is a proton and what’s the charge?

in the center; + charge; 1 amu

where in an atom is a neutron and what’s the charge?

in the center; 0 charge; 1 amu

where in an atom is a electron and what’s the charge?

clouds around nucleus; - charge

what are the major elements of life as we know it?

carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus

3 of the major elements of life are carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. what are the other 3?

hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus

what are the different types of atomic interactions/bonds?

ionic, covalent, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals interactions

what are chemical bonds/atomic bonds?

they are bonds that hold atoms together withing a molecule

what are ionic bonds?

the attraction of a cation to an anion; fairly weak, but not the weakest

what are covalent bonds?

when atoms share one or more electron pairs; single= 1 pair of electrons, double= 2 electron pairs; the STRONGEST bond

what’s the strongest atomic bond?

covalent bonds

what are hydrogen bonds?

a weak attraction between slightly + H atom & slightly - O or N in another atom

what are Van der Waal forces?

a brief interaction between NEUTRAL atoms; the WEAKEST

what’s the weakest atomic bond?

Van der Waals

what is polar covalent bonding?

when the electrons are shared UNEQUALLY (typically e spend more time near O)

what is nonpolar covalent bonding?

when the electrons are shared EQUALLY

how does hydrogen bonding affect water?

water molecules are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonds; they’re attracted to each other; have a higher gaseous temperature, and allows for COHESION

what characteristics of water are important for life?

\-most chemicals in our bodies consist of chemicals dissolved or suspended in water

\-water is 50-75% of our body weight

\-water’s thermal stability helps stabilize internal temps of the body

\-properties that support life: solvency, cohesion, adhesion, chemical reactivity, & thermal stability

what are acids?

they are proton DONORS

what pH are acids?

LESS than 7.0

what are bases?

they’re proton ACCEPTORS

what pH are bases?

MORE than 7.0

what is pH?

a measure of acidity using molarity of H+

why is having normal pH important?

having normal blood pH is crucial for the maintenance of physiological functions

what is a neutral pH?

a pH of 7.0

what are buffers?

chemical solutions that resist changes in pH

what are organic compounds?

compounds containing carbon; CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, & NUCLEIC ACIDS

what do carbs do?

they act as a quickly mobilized source of energy

what are the monomers of carbs?

monosaccharides(glucose, galactose, & fructose)

also hydrophilic & sugars

what are lipids?

hydrophobic organic molecules with a high ratio of H:O

what are the 5 primary lipids?

fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, and steroids

what are dietary lipids?

triglycerides (for energy storage too)

what are proteins?

polymers of amino acids; can be structurally damages by heat or pH change

what are nucleic acids?

polymers of nucleotides; DNA & RNA; genetics

what is the first tenet of the excel theory?

all organisms are composed of cells and cell products

what’s the cell theory in it’s entirety?

\-all organisms are composed of cells and cell products

\-a cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life

\-an organism’s structure and fxns are due to activities of cells

\-cells come only from preexisting cells

\-cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities

what is cytology?

the scientific study of cells

who concluded that all animals are made of cells?

Theodor Schwann

who demonstrated that “cells arise only from other cells” & what idea did this refute?

\-Louis Pasteur

\-spontaneous generation-- living cells arise from nonliving matter

what is the inductive method?

method used to gain knowledge on ANATOMY; making numerous observations until one becomes confident drawing generalizations & predictions; all truth is tenative (“proof beyond reasonable doubt”); F> BACON

do we use the inductive method?

no, but all truth IS tentative

what is the deductive method?

“hypothetico”; method of making educational theories/guesses typically of PHYSIOLOGICAL knowledge; investigator makes hypo, and it must be testable

what is the hierarchy of complexity?

atoms>molecules>organelles>cells>tissues>organs>organ systems>organism

what comes after organelles in the hierarchy of complexity?

cells

what makes up organs in the hierarchy of orgnization?

atoms>molecules>organelles>cells>tissues

what is holism?

“emergent properties” of the WHOLE organism CANNOT be predicted from the properties of the separte parts; “humans are ore than the sum of their parts”

what is reductionism?

large complex can be understood by studying their simpler components; understanding the big by starting small; essential to scientific thinking

what does negative feedback do?

it allows for DYNAMIC equilibrium w/in a limited range around a set point; the body senses a change and “negates” or reverses it

what’s a bodily system that exemplifies negative feedback?

body temp: too warm--vessels dilate in skin, and sweating begins (heat-losing mech.)

too cold: vessels constrict & swelling begins (heat-gaining mech.)

what is simple diffusion?

net mvmnt of particles from a place of higher concentration to lower concentration

how is diffusion different from osmosis?

diffusion does NOT require a membrane

what factors affect diffusion rate through a membrane?

temperature, molecular weight, steepness of concentration gradient, membrane surface area, & membrane permeability

what is osmosis?

the net flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane

what s osmotic pressure?

the hydrostatic pressure required to stop osmosis?

what is reverse osmosis?

the process of applying mechanical pressure to override osmotic pressure. ex: water purification

what are electrolytes?

they’re substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting an electric current

what are electrolytes required for within the body?

nerve, heart, and muscle function

how are electrolytes in the body lost?

\-sweat

what are free radicals?

they’re short-lived particles with an unusual number of electrons

how are free radicals produced?

normal metabolic reactions, radiation, and certain chemicals

what do free radicals do in the body?

trigger reactions that destroy molecules and can cause cancer, death of heart tissue, and aging

what are antioxidants?

chemicals that neutralize (destroy) free radicals

what is “energy”?

the capacity to do work i.e. moving something

what is potential energy?

energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work

what is chemical energy?

potential energy in chemical bonds

what is free energy?

potential energy available in a system to do useful work

what is kinetic energy?

energy of motion; doing work

what is heat energy-wise?

kinetic energy of molecular motion

how is heat generated energy-wise within our bodies?

the kinetic energy of our cells constantly moving

what are the 3 overarching phases of the cell cycle in order?

Interphase, M mitotic phase, cytokinesis

what are the phases within interphase?

G1 phase, S(ynthesis) phase, & G2 phase

what happens in the G1 phase?

growth & continuation of normal metabolic roles

what happens in the S phase?

DNA replication

what happens in the G2 phase?

growth and preparation for mitosis

what are the different M Mitotic phase?

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

what are the 4 main tissue groups?

epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular

what is histology?

the study of tissues…and how they are arranged in organs

what are the different types of epithelia?

simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar

what is connective tissue?

a diverse, abundant type of tissue in which cells occupy less space than matrix; supports, connects, and protects organs; highly variable vascularity

what does connective tissue do?

supports, connects,and protects organs

what are cell junctions?

connections between two cells

what are the different types of cell junctions?

tight junctions, desmosomes/hemi-, & gap junctions

what are tight junctions?

zipper-like cell junction, interlocking linkage btwn 2 adjacent cells by transmembrane cell-adhesion proteins

what do tight junctions do?

seal off intercellular space, making it difficult for substance to pass between cells

what are desosomes?

cell junction patch that holds cells together (like a clothing snap)

what do desmosomes do?

\-keep cells from pulling apart--resists mechanical stress

\-hook-like, J-sha\[ed proteins that arise from the cytoskeleton

what are hemidesmosomes?

half-desmosome cell junctions that anchor basal cells of an epithelium to an underlying basement membrane

what are gap junctions?

“communicating” cell junctions; formed by ring-like connexons

what are glands?

cell or organ that secretes substances for use elsewhere in the body or releases them for elimination from the body