Development and Mental health

normative age graded influences

influences linked to age, experienced by most adults of every generation as they grow older: biology, shared experiences, and internal change processes.

normative history-graded influences to aging

experiences that result from historical events or conditions

cohort

a group of people who share a common historical experience at the same stage of life

nonnormative life events

aspects that influence your life that are unique to you and not shared with many others

interactionist view of development

genetic traits determine how someone interacts with the environment and they also determine the environment in some way

life-span developmental psychology approach

development is lifelong, mulitdimensional, plastic, contextual and has multiple causes.

bioecological model of development

we must consider the developing person within the context of multiple environments. contains of the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

attrition

participant dropout

continuity theory

majority of older adults show relative consistency in personality traits, attachment and relationships, beliefs, traditions, interests and activities despite their changing physical, mental and social status.

SOC model of successful ageing

selection (do/dont do), optimization (top performance/things dont go as usual anymore), compensation (help from others/aid/creativity)

socioemotional selectivity theory

social goals change from knowledge related to emotion related, and people become more selective as time goes by, making them invest more in emotionally meaningful goals.

basic need and wellbeing in aging —> self-determination theory

autonomy, competence, relatedness

both Plato and Aristotles view on development

long term welfare of society depended on children being raised properly

Aristotles view on child development

fitting child rearing to the needs of the individual kid, and knowledge comes from experience

Platos view on child development

self control and discipline, children are born with innate knowledge

Jean-Jaques Rousseau on child development

children need maximum freedom

John Locke on child development

kids need discipline first and then their freedom needs to be increased gradually

stage theorists (discontinuous development)

Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Kohlberg

bioecological model of development

instituations are important for development but even more so the people that children interact with

endophenotype

‘intermediate phenotype’ that influences behaviour (e.g. brain, nervous system)

regulator genes

chain reaction of events that switch genes on or off

methylation

methyl molecules block transcriptions in the promotor region of the gene to silence gene expression

neurogenesis

proliferation of neurons through cell division

piagets theory of development main questions adressed

nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, active child

information-processing theory main questions addressed

nature-nurture, how change takes place

core-knowledge main questions addressed

nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity

sociocultural main questions addressed

nature-nurture, influence of the sociocultural context, how change takes place

dynamic systems theory main questions

nature-nurture, active child, how change takes place

Piaget believes in a developmental sequence of four stages which are constructed through:

assimilation, accomodation, equilibration

constructivist approach

children are mentally active from birth, our activity contributes to development. children construct knowledge in response to own experiences. child as a scientist

central properties of stage theory

qualitative change, broad applicability, brief transitions, invariant sequence (always the same order)

sensorimotor stage

birth to 2 yrs, infants use their senses and motor skills to gain information about the world

preoperational stage

2-7 yrs, development of symbolic representation (one object can stand for another), limitations include centration (focusing on single features of objects), egocentrism (perceiving the world only from own pov)

concrete operational stage

7-12 yrs, reason logically about the world, classification, ordering and reversibility go well, systematic and hypothetical thinking are difficult

formal operational stage

12+ yrs, abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, not everyone reaches this stage, thinking expands. piaget underestimated young children and overestimated adolescents and adults.

information-processing theory

focus on the structure of cognitive systems, focus on attention and memory to solve problems, models the thought process with a mechanistic view (task analysis and computer simulation)

according to information processing theory: view of childrens nature

child as a processing system with limited capacity, cognitive development is gradual by being able to process more information at the same time and become faster. child as a problem solver

memory development three capabilities according to information processing theory

1. basic processes (associating events, recognizing objects as familiar, recalling facts and procedures, generalizing)

2. strategies (learning new strategies. important strategies are rehearsal and selective attention)

   1. content knowledge (increased knowledge improves recall and integration of new information)

core-knowledge theory

in domains of evolutionary importance, children have innate knowledge and domain-specific learning mechanisms (1. navigate space, 2. know what is (non-)living, 3. understand cause and effect, 4. use numbers, 5. recognise faces, 6. use language, 7. understand and manipulate others)

core-knowledge theory is nativist and constructivist

nativism: infants have a substantial innate knowledge of important evolutionary domains

constructivism: infants build increasingly advanced understanding by combining innate knowledge with following experiences

sociocultural theory

other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to children’s development

vygotsky loves sociocultural theory:

children are social learners, connected to others who help them gain skills and understanding

why cultural transmission works

humans have a tencency to teach others, humans have a tendency to attend to and learn from others. we are the products of our culture. processes may be identical, content unique.

intersubjectivity

mutual understanding during communication

joint action

focus on the same external object

dynamic-systems theory

change occurs over varying time periods in complex systems. development is a process of constant change. small cuases can have large effects over time

psychoanalytic theory of social development

development driven by biological maturation

freud: behaviour motivated by need to satisfy basic drives, important role of the unconcious

erikson: development driven by a series of developmental crises

freud’s theory of development

theory of psychosexual development. freuds psychosexual stages:

oral (0-1 yrs)

anal (1-3 yrs)

phallic (3-6 yrs), focus on genitalia

latency (6-11 yrs), sexual energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities

genital (adolescence), sexual maturation is complete

freuds three personality structures

1. id: unconcious desires, seeks pleasure

2. ego: rational, logical, problem-solving component

   1. superego: internalized moral standards, conscience

Eriksons theory of psychosexual development (stages/conflict)

trust vs mistrust

autonomy vs shame/doubt

initiative vs guilt

industry vs inferiority

identity vs role confusion

intimacy vs isolation

generativity vs stagnation

integrity vs dispair

John B Watson on behaviorism

psychologists should study visible behavior, not the mind. childrens development is determined through classical conditioning, very strict and unemotional advice for parenting

skinner on operant conditioning

the environment controls our behaviour, behavior is an operant response influenced by previous outcomes. parenting advice: attention is a powerful reinforcer

Albert Bandura on social learning

most human learning is social and based on observation and imitation of others. (vicarious reinforcement). also reciprocal determinims between child and environment (its all influencing each other)

social-cognitive theories

active child: children actively process social information.

social cognition: children can think and reason about their own and others’ thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviors

Dodge: social information processing model (SIP)

seeks to explain aggression; causes and intervention.

carol dweck on two types of achievement motivation

motivated by competence, motivated by others’ view of success

ecological theories of development

ethology, evolutionary psychology, bioecological model (bonfenbrenner)

Ethology (Konrad Lorenz)

explain behavior by its adaptive or survival value, effects of evolution. imprinting and the concept of the sensitive period

imprinting

form of learning in which newbors become attached to and follow adult members of their species, usually their mother.

evolutionary psychology

applies the darwinian concepts of natural selection and adaptation to human behaviour. specific genes developed for behaviors that improved our chances for survival.

parental investment theory: evolutionary basis of parental behavior. explains the extensive investment that parents make in their offspring.

bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner)

microsystem: immediate environment that a child directly experiences and participates in (eg. family)

mesosystem: interconnections among the microsystem settings

exosystem: environmental settings that a child does not directly experience but that affect the child indirectly (eg. parents’ workplace)

macrosystem: larger cultural and social context in whcih the other systems are embedded (eg. policies of a country)

chronosystem: changes over time that influence other systems (eg. COVID)

components of emotions

neural response

physiological response

subjective feelings

emotional expression

action

when does social smiling start

around 3 months of age

when does fear develop, and seperation anxiety

7 months. seperation anxiety starts at 8 months and peaks at 15

when anger

4 months, peak at 18-24 months

when sadness

4 months

when surprise

6 months

when disgust

0-3 months

concious emotions

sense of self seperate from other people

guilt, shame, jealousy, empathy, pride, emberassment

2 yo

social referencing

using facial expressions and vocal cues of others as sources of information about the environment

display rules

social and cultural informal norms of a group about where, when and how emotions should be shown, masked or suppressed.

fake emotions when

around 8 yrs

temperament

individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts

goodness of fit

how well an individuals temperament matches the demands/expectations of the social environment

differential susceptibility theory

some children are more influenced by both positive and adverse environments and experiences

attachment definition

to seek proximity to a specific attachment figure, at the times of distress or discomfort

attachment system development

0-3 months: no distinction between caregivers

3-6 months: proximity seeking to specific caregivers

6/8-18: active attachment behavior; object permanence

18-36+: goal oriented system

contingent responding

attachment system, positive feedback loop, oxytocin

attachment system

the set of behaviors and mental states that are responsible for setting up and maintaining attachment

insecure/avoidant in strange situation experiment

explore when with mother, not upset when she leaves, avoid/ignore mother when she returns, not much concern toward strangers

secure attachment in strange situation experiment

explore when with mother, distressed when she leaves, apprehensive toward stranger when alone with them, happy when mother is back

insecure/resistant attachment in strange situation experiment

less likely to explore, most distressed when mother leaves, uncomfortable around strangers, stay close to mother when she comes back but may act angry

disorganised attachment ins trange situation experiment

inconsistent behaviors: insecure, avoidant, controlling but also aggressive toward parent

family definition from the perspective of the child

group involving at least one adult who is related to the child by birth, marriage, adoption or foster status

resource theory

the larger the family, the fewer resources go into each child

confluence theory

in larger families, the intellectual climate within the family drops, suggesting that the intellectual environment is diluted by younger siblings and improved by older, more mature siblings, which influences the childs development

risk factors for teen pregnancy

growing up in an economically disadvantaged house, doing poorly/school suspension, low college attendance expectation, early sex

life history theory

aims to explain increased risk behavior in adolescents from low-income environments. developmental processes are in place at an earlier time in resource-poor environments than in resource-high environments.

moral realism or heteronomous morality

focus on consequences. judgement based on result → how much damage?

moral relativism or autonomous morality

focus on intentions, considering fairness and equality in rule construction

kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning

sequences through which children develop moral reasoning, they develop over time.

preconventional level: self-centered, focus on getting rewards and avoiding punisment. stage1: punishment and obedience orientation, stage2: instrumental and equal exchange orientation

conventional level: centered on social relationships, focus on compliance with social duties and laws. stage3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity, stage4: social system and conscience orientation

postconventional level: centered on ideals, focusing on moral principles. stage5: social contract or individual rights orientation, stage6: universal ethical principles

critique on Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning

no sufficient distinction between moral issues and social convention

reasoning not continuous

use of dilemmas not valid across cultures

gender differences not indicated

gilligan’s theory of moral development

sex differences in moral reasoning is a result of the way they are socialized

social domain theory of moral development

moral reasoning grows gradually through social interactions with peers and adults

parents transmit values through teaching and discipline but also through example

peer relationships involve equal power, more behavioral agency in moral situations

differences occur in moral judgement as a result of diverse environments

domains of social knowledge

moral domain (universal concepts of right and wrong)

societal domain (rules and conventions through which societies maintain order)

personal domain (individual preferences are the main consideration)

conscience

integral regulatory mechanism that increases individual’s ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture. restrains antisocial behavior or destructive impulses

empathy

emotional response to another persons state or condition that reflects said state or condition

sympathy

feeling of concern for another in response to others’ emotional state or condition

developmental timeline of prosocial behavior

by 14 months: cooperation driven by sympathy and a sense of fairness, distress when others are distressed

18-25 months: sharing demonstrated

2-4 years: other prosocial behaviors increase

instrumental aggression

aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal