AP Lang Must Know Terms

Latin for "against the man."
Attacking the person instead of the argument proposed by that individual.
An argument directed to the personality, prejudices, previous words and actions of an opponent rather than an appeal to pure reason.
Example: "Rush Limbaugh is a big fat idiot" writes left-wing comedian Al Franken.

ad hominem

A fiction or nonfiction narrative, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities, moral values, or concepts.
Playing out of the narrative is designed to reveal an abstraction or truth.
Characters and other elements may be symbolic of the ideas referred to in the piece.
Example: The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan or Animal Farm by George Orwell.

allegory

A reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place, or event, or to another literary work or passage.
Generally speaking, the writer assumes the educated reader will recognize the reference.
Often humorous, but not always.
Establishes a connection between writer and reader, or to make a subtle point.
Example: "In gulfs enchanted, where the Siren sings."

allusion

Repetition of a word, phrase or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row.
Deliberate form of repetition to reinforce point or to make it more coherent.
Example: In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson places the subject, "He," at the beginning of twenty accusations in a row, each as a single paragraph, to put the weight of responsibility for the problems with King George III, whom Jefferson refers to in the third person.

anaphora

The endowment of something that is not human with human characteristics. Fancier term than personification.

Anthropomorphism

In writing, denotes a writer's intentional drop from the serious and elevated to the trivial and lowly, in order to achieve a comic or satiric effect.
An event (as at the end of a series) that is strikingly less important than what has preceded it.
The transition towards this ending.

anticlimax

A sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reversal o the first; it adds power to the sentence.

Antimetabole

A balancing of two opposite or contrasting words, phrases or clauses.
Example: ". . .one seeing more where the other sees less, one seeing black where the other sees white, one seeing big where the other sees small. . . .";
Example: Shakespeare's Macbeth, Act I, Scene I, Line 11: "Fair is foul and foul is fair."
Oxymoron: rhetorical antithesis, juxtaposing two contradictory terms like "wise fool" or "eloquent silent."

antithesis

A brief recounting of a relevant episode.
Used in fiction and nonfiction.
Develops point or injects humor.
Commonly used as an illustration for an abstract point being made.
Example: Mark Twain is famous for his _____ about growing up in Missouri intertwined with humor and an abstract truth about human nature.

anecdote

A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle

Aphorism

An interruption in a poem or narrative so that the speaker or writer can address a dead or absent person or particular audience or notion directly. "Oh Time thou must untangle this not " Viola in Twelfth Night

Apostrophe

Meaning: model, example, standard, original, classic.
Elemental patterns of ritual, mythology and folklore that recur in the legends, ceremonies and stories of the most diverse cultures.
In literature, applies to narrative designs, character types, or images which are said to be identifiable in a wide variety of works of literature, as well as myths, and even ritualized modes of social behavior.
Example: Over 300 different versions of the Cinderella tale exist from around the world, and all of them have certain archetypal characteristics: wicked step-mother, mean sisters, handsome prince who rescues the girl. These common characteristics are qualities that strike a strong emotional reaction in all who own the story.

archetype

Sentence where commas are used with no conjunctions to separate a series of words.
Gives equal weight to each part.
Speeds up the flow of the sentence.
Formula: X, Y, Z. As opposed to X, Y, and Z.

asyndeton

Originally meant "cotton stuffing."
Adopted to signify verbose and inflated diction that is disproportionate to the matter it expresses.
Popular with the heroic drama of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.
Although a century after the height of this style, James Fenimore Cooper's Leatherstocking Sagas (Last of the Mohicans for example) are typical of bombastic speeches.

bombast

A purging of the emotions which takes place at the end of a tragedy.

Catharsis

Arrangement of repeated thoughts in the pattern of X Y Y X.
Usually short and summarizes the main idea.
Example: From Yeats's "An Irish Airman Foresees His Death"; the poet writes:
"The years to come seemed waste of breath,
A waste of breath the years behind."

Chiasmus/Antimetabole

Fiction or nonfiction that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Designed to expound a branch of theoretical, moral, or practical knowledge, or else to instantiate, in an impressive and persuasive imaginative or fictional form, a moral, religious, or philosophical theme or doctrine.
Example: "On the Nature of Things" by Lucretius; "Essay on Man" by Pope; "Faerie Queene" by Spencer; "The Pilgrim's Progress" by Bunyan.

didactic

Reducing an argument or issue to two polar opposites and ignoring any alternatives.

either-or reasoning

A meditative poem, usually sad and reflective in nature. Sometimes, though not always, it is concerned with the theme of death.

Elegy

The deliberate omission of a word or words that are readily implied by the context; it creates and elegant or daring economy of words.

Ellipsis

A feeling on the part of the reader of sharing the particular experience being described by the character or writer.

Empathy

Appealing to the emotions of the reader in order to excite and involve them in the argument.
Makes use of pathos: the quality in an experience, narrative, literary work, etc., which arouses profound feelings of compassion or sorrow.
Pathos is Greek for "suffering."

emotional appeal

Literally means "a manifestation."
Traditionally, Christianity used the word to signify a manifestation of God's presence in the world.
Irishman James Joyce, in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, first adapted the word to a secular meaning: a sudden radiance and revelation while observing a commonplace object.
Joyce replaced what earlier writers had called "the moment," an instance or moment of revelation.

epiphany

The repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses; it sets up a pronounced rhythm and gains a special emphasis both by repeating the word and by putting the words in the final position.

Epistrophe

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Extendend Metaphor

A play that aims to entertain the audience through absurd and ridiculous characters and actions.

Farce

Contains language that creates an elevated tone; free of slang, idioms, colloquialisms, and contractions; contains polysyllabic words, sophisticated syntax, and elegant word choice

High/Formal Diction

Gives a Command

Imperative Sentence

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented

Infer (inference)

The language of everyday use; relaxed and conversational; common and simple words, idioms, slang, jargon

Informal/low diction

Asks a question

Interrogative Sentence

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Invective

Variation of the normal word order (subject, verb, complement) which puts the verb or complement at the head of the sentence.
The sentence element appearing first is emphasized more than the subject that is buried in the sentence.

Inversion/ Inverted order of a sentence

A characteristic language of a particular group (as among thieves); "they don't speak our lingo"

Jargon

A poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, often creating an effect of surprise and wit. Ex. "The apparition of these faces in the crowd:/ Petals on a wet, black bough." ("In a Station of the Metro" by Ezra Pound).

Juxtaposition

Noun.
From Greek lítōtēs for "plain" or "simple."
Assertion of an affirmative by negating its contrary. Example: "He's not the brightest man in the world," meaning "he is stupid."
It is a simple form of understatement, often in Anglo-Saxon poetry, like Beowulf, it is a statement of grim irony. Example, in describing the dwelling place of the monster Grendel, Hrothgar states, "That is not a pleasant place."
General example: "He is two bricks shy of a full load," meaning his reasoning powers are not all there.

litotes

Makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending. Ex. "We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors." The sentence could end before the modifying phrases without losing its coherence.

Loose or Cumulative Sentence

Noun.
From Greek metōnymía for "change of name."
A figure of speech where the term for one thing is applied for another with which it has become closely associated in experience, or where a part represents the whole.
Example: "the crown" is figuratively the king.
Example: the word "petticoat" represents femininity; whereas the word "pants" represents being in control.
Reminder: This is not a synecdoche; the tools are different. For one, a metonymy is used so much that it has become a figure of speech.

metonymy

A fallacy of argument in which claims, reasons or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn't follow from another.

Non Sequitur

1 a : something neglected or left undone b : apathy toward or neglect of duty
2 : the act of omitting : the state of being omitted

Omission

Noun.
From Greek: oxi means "sharp, keen, acute, pungent, acid"; moron means "dull, stupid, foolish."
A figure of speech in which two contradictory words are placed side-by-side for effect.
Words are obviously opposed or markedly contradictory terms.
Casually reference: contradiction of terms.
Examples: "civil war," "alone together," "deafening silence," or "jumbo shrimp."

oxymoron

Imitates the serious materials and manner of a particular work, or the characteristic style of a particular author, and applies it to a lowly or grossly discordant subject.
An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes.
Sometimes called "burlesque" and "travesty."
An English essayist of the early twentieth century, Max Beerbohm is known for his parody.
James Thurber of The New Yorker magazine was an American writer also known for parody.
The cartoon series The Simpsons often does a parody of a famous poem or novel.

parody

Noun.
Etymology: Greek.
A quality in an experience, narrative, literary work, etc., which arouses profound feelings of compassion or sorrow.
Pathetic expression or emotion; transient or emotional.
Example: For many audience members, the first time viewing Braveheart in a darkened theatre produced a profound pathos while watching William Wallace scream out "Freedom!" in his last dying moments after suffering a barbaric torture at the hands of the civilized English.

pathos

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish. The term implies showing off knowledge, not helpful teaching of it.

Pedantic

Sentence that places the main idea or central complete thought at the end of the sentence, after all introductory elements.

Periodic sentence

Sentence that uses and or other conjunctions multiple times with no commas to separate items in a series.
Stresses equally each member of the series.
Slows the flow of the sentence for effect, making items more emphatic than in the asyndeton.
Formula: X and Y and Z.
See asyndeton for variation.

polysyndeton

Latin for "after this, therefore because of this."
When a writer implies that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second.

post hoc, egro propter hoc

Signifies a sudden heightening of rhythm, diction, and figurative language that makes a section of verse or prose—especially a descriptive passage—stand out from its context.
Sometimes applied to a set piece, separable and quotable, in which an author rises to an occasion.
Example: From the 1999 film Cider House Rules, in which Dr. Wilbur Larch (Michael Caine) salutes the boy orphans crowded in the attic bedroom with,"Goodnight, you princes of Maine. You kings of New England"; thereby heightening just how precious these orphaned lads and the struggling orphanage are to the doctor.
Example: Shakespeare's eulogy of England by the dying John of Gaunt in Shakespeare's Richard II (Act II, Scene I, lines 40-43). The dying John says:
This royal throne of kings, this scept'red isle,
This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
This other Eden, demi-paradise . . . .

purple patch

When a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue.

red herring

The art of effective communication, especially persuasive discourse.
Focuses on the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style in order to create fitting and appropriate discourse.
Might also be used as an adjective to describe the elements of effective communication (rhetorical situation, rhetorical question, rhetorical example, etc.).

rhetoric

A question that requires no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement. Ex. "If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin's arguments?"

Rhetorical Question

Text that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of human behavior by portraying it in an extreme way.
Satire is meant to improve society through humor, not to tear it down through vicious ridicule.
Doesn't simply abuse (as in invective) or get personal (as in sarcasm).
Targets groups or large concepts rather than individuals.
As opposed to sarcasm, which is meant to abuse and ridicule an individual.
Very creative and takes audience knowledge and perception to appreciate.

satire

Argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak.
Diverts attention away from the real issues.

straw man

Noun.
From the Greek word syllogismos, meaning "inference or conclusion."
A form of argument or reasoning, consisting of two premises and a conclusion.

syllogism

Greek, for "taking together."
A part of something is used to signify the whole.
Or, more rarely, a whole to signify a part.
Examples: Milton in "Lycidas" calls the corrupt clergy of the Church of England "blind mouths," meaning their misguided sermons represent their total corruption.
Example: "Give me your hand," does not mean literally just your hand, but your entire physical help.
Reminder: although this is a subset of metonymy, be sure to be specific.

synecdoche

A sentence shorter than 5 words

Telegraphic sentence

The ironic minimalizing of fact, presents something as less significant than it is

Understatement

A device that joins together two apparently incongruous things by applying a verb or adjective to both which only really applies to one of them
"Kill the boys and the luggage" (Shakespeare's Henry V )s

Zeugma

A reduced form of the formal syllogism in which one piece of the argument is assumed or omitted.

ex. We are playing Meadowcreek this weekend, so we are going to win.

enthymeme

A call for a specific action that invites the listener to join the speaker in a cause.

ex. "We need to join together to end excessive plastic waste."

hortative

A short, general rule for living one's life. Overlapping with the idea of an aphorism, this rule does not necessarily imply wisdom.

ex. "Where there's a whip, there's a way." --animated version of Lord of the Rings.

maxim

imagery dealing with food or drink, appealing to the literal sense of taste.

ex. "The feast is finally upon us: let us taste of every plate, savor each salted morsel, delight in each sweet slice."

gustatory

a rhetorical blunder in which two or more figurative comparisons get blended together in a nonsensical way.

ex. "I have another ax to grind before the final buzzer sounds." (presumably the final buzzer in an ax-grinding contest?)

mixed metaphor

a brief and witty statement, not necessarily didactic. Originally used only to describe short poems, this term now applies more broadly.

ex. "I can resist everything except temptation" --Oscar Wilde

epigram

intentional catering to people who are wary of elitism through cliche, vernacular speech, and common man claims.

ex. "I am no orator, but a plain, blunt man. I have no words nor wit...but only speak right on." --Shakespeare's Julius Caesar

plain folk appeal

a steady increase in the severity of a statement. This can also be called rhetorical climax.

ex. "Morton found the food indifferent; Winston considered it abhorrent; Simon killed the cook."

auxesis

Dealing with only one source per paragraph, or letting the documents control your essay. Your argument must be central--it is not just an explanation of documents.

A common mistake in synthesis

A negative tone that highlights or assumes selfishness in another's motives.

Cynical

An attempt to make something seem rational even though it is clearly fallacious. Ex. I need to watch this movie before I study because I can only study well when I'm relaxed.

Rationalization

Fickle, easily changing opinions or preferences based on whim.

Capricious

"Exhausted and hungry, the journey was finished." Adjectives or phrases in a sentence have no logical reference. In this case, the grammatical subject that has become exhausted is the journey.

Dangling Modifier

A style of writing or speaking that takes an extreme and unapologetic position. Not necessarily as mean-spirited as invective, but it can be.

Polemic

In question 2, all analysis must deal with the writer's purpose. Avoid simply labeling devices or offering irrelevant details.

Explain "Purpose is King"

A fallacy that assumes further results as automatic based on one step. Ex. The four-team college playoff will destroy the bowl system and become just like the NFL.
Legalization of marijuana will lead to legalization of all drugs.

Slippery Slope

Written for the purpose of instruction, especially used with moral guidance. Safety videos shown to children and religious behavior guidelines are examples.

Didactic

Its modifiers cannot be separated by commas—hierarchical structure, unlike parataxis, can be shown in subordinate clauses or by compound adjectives, as in "inexpensive composite materials"

Hypotaxis

Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do for your country. -Kennedy

Antimetabole example

They carried their ammunition and their sense of responsibility

Zeugma example

My father was a hardworking, middle class shop owner.

Plain Folk Appeal example

Will you please give me strength in my hour of need, O Lord.

Apostrophe example

When we live no more, we shall live forever.

Paradox example

Having so many eyes on me makes me nervous.

Synecdoche example

Overly simplistic. Essentially, this type of reasoning falls under the fallacy of simple cause or post hoc.

Facile

That period of history was not unstudied.

Litotes example

To remove or bring into questions the basis of authority on which a point or speaker relies.

Undermine

A listless sort of sadness. Less severe than despair and often linked with nostalgia.

Melancholy

Celebratory or praising. It shares a root with applause.

Laudatory

A sense of being insulted or offended. This tone is employed by those who are shocked or bothered by an unexpected offense.

Indignation