Anatomy Unit B

fuel for cells

Carbs, lipids, proteins

carbohydrates

sugars (saccharine), glycogen, starch, cellulose, provide energy, store energy, spare protein, prevent ketosis

Monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, deoxyribose

disaccharide

sucrose, lactose, maltose

polysaccharides

glycogen, starch, cellulose

dehydration synthesis

removal of water and the bonding of building blocks; pulling out water to build something

A+B -> AB

hydrolysis decomposion

adding water to break a bond

AB -> A+B

types of lipids

triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids, lipoprotiens

lipids

provide energy, protection, insulation for organs in the body

Hydrophobic

Water fearing

saturated fats

fats that are solid at room temperature; no double bond; packed tightly

unsaturated fats

A fat that is liquid at room temperature and found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds, one double bond, has a kink

amphipathic

having both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region

Triglycerides structure

one glycerol + 3 fatty acid tails

Cholesterol

four carbon rings, provides stability in the cell membrane

steroids

built from cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone, vitamin D

eicosanoids

prostaglandins and leukotrienes - both are involved in inflammatory response, 20C fatty acids

Prostaglandins

regulates body temp

leukotrienes

Chemical substances that contribute to anaphylaxis; released by the immune system in allergic reactions.

protiens

provides building materials, amino acids, for growth, replacement and repair of body tissue

amino acids

The 20 molecules that are held together by peptide bonds to make up proteins. (non-polar, polar, ionizable, aromatic, special fucntion)

- have a special R group

primary organization

the unique sequence of amino acids

secondary organization

alpha helix and beta pleated sheet

tertiary organization

3D structure

quaternary structure

interaction of multiple polypeptide chains; only in some

Collagen

structural protein found in the skin and connective tissue

insulin

A protein hormone that is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates and the regulation of glucose levels in the blood

actin/myosin

contractile proteins in muscle

amylase and dehydrogenase

catalytic

Metabolism

the sum of all biochemical reactions in a cell/body

key chemical reactions in the metabolism

dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis synthesis

Hydrophilic

water loving

endergonic reaction

uphill, a chemical reaction that absorbs more energy than it is releases, endothermic

exergonic reaction

downhill, a chemical reaction that releases more energy than it is absorbed, exothermic

coupled reactions

the energy released by an exergonic reaction is used to drive an endergonic reaction

activation energy

the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction, collision energy needed to break chemical bonds, speeds up reactions

structural pieces of an enzyme

apoenzyme (major part) with coenzyme (carry H ions, vitamins) and cofactor (minerals) as add ons

biological catalyst

A substance found in living organisms that speeds up reactions (an enzyme).

catalyst

substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

adenosine

adenine + ribose

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work, three phosphates, provides readily releasable energy in the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate group

ADP

(Adenosine Diphosphate) The compound that remains when a phosphate group is removed from ATP, releasing energy, two phosphates

AMP

(Adenosine monophosphate) ATP minus 2 phosphate groups

substrate-level phosphorylation

When an enzyme adds to a phosphate to make ATP in the cytosol

oxidative phosphorylation

Part of the electron transport chain. A process occurring in the mitochondria that results in the formation of ATP from the flow of electrons across the inner membrane to bind with oxygen.

anaerobic

without oxygen, glucose is partially broken down to pyruvate and produces 2 ATP

aerobic

with oxygen, glucose is completely broken down to CO2 and H2O, produces heat and 36-38 ATP

Oxidation reaction

OIL

LOSS of electrons, hydrogen, potential energy,

gains oxygenN

Reduction reaction

RIG

GAIN electrons, hydrogen, potential energy

loss of oxygen

NAD

derivative of niacin; reduces to NADH+ H+ (gains a hydride ion and H+ is released)

FAD

derivative of riboflavin; reduces to FADH2

how does glucose enter the cell?

facilitated transport - glucose gets brought into the cell and has to be carried with a glucose transporter protein (GluT)

what happens to glucose when it enter the cell?

glucose produces ATP, synthesizes amino acids, produces glycogen (glycogenesis), makes triglycerides (lipogenesis)

connection between electron transport, glycolysis, and the Krebs Cycle.

Glucose -> Glycolysis -> pyruvate -> acetyl CoA -> krebs cycle -> NADH and FADH2 -> electron transport -> ATP

glycolysis

a set of reactions occur that oxides one glucose molecule into 2 pyruvic acids; 2 ATP is produced, 2 NADH + H+ are produced

1st step of glycolysis

Phosphorylation of glucose->glucose-6-p catalyzed by hexokinase; uses ATP to make ADP

Hexokinase

enzyme that converts glucose to glucose 6-phosphate in peripheral tissues

2nd step of glycolysis

glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate using isomerase

isomerase

rearrangement of atoms

3rd step of glycolysis

Fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate using phosphofructokinase; uses ATP to make ADP

Phosphofructokinase

enzyme that is feedback-inhibited by ATP; check point; regulates glycolysis rate (high ADP = low ATP, speed up glycolysis)

4th step of glycolysis

fructose 1,6-biphosphate converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (DHAP is converted to G3P); makes 2 of everything now

5th step of glycolysis

the two G3P converts 2 NAD+ to 2NADH + 2H+ which creates 1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid

6th step of glycolysis

1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid is converted to 3-phosphoglyceric acid; makes 2 ATP

7th step of glycolysis

3-phospholygeric acid turns into 2-phospholygeric acid

8th step of glycolysis

2-phospholygeric acid turns into phosphoglyceric acid

9th step of glycolysis

pyruvate kinase transfers a P from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to ADP to form Pyruvate and ATP

phosphorylase

Adds inorganic phosphate onto substrate without using ATP (e.g., glycogen phosphorylase).

dephosphorylate

Remove phosphate from molecule

anaerobic pyruvate

turns into lactic acid

aerobic pyruvate

turns into acetyl CoA

Krebs cycle

second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions

outcome of glycolysis/Krebs cycle/and electron transport chain

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH/NADH + H+ and FADH2/H2O and ATP

1st step of Krebs cycle

Acetyl CoA donates the acetyl group to

Oxaloacetic acid

to generate six-carbon molecule, Citric acid.

(CoA released during this reaction can be recycled back)

2nd step of krebs cycle

citric acid is isomerized to isocitrate acid

3rd step of krebs cycle

Isocitrate acid is oxidized oxidative hydroxylation reaction), it loses CO2 and also H ions are passed to NAD+ which makes NADH + H+

4th step of Krebs Cycle

alpha-ketoglutaric acid is oxidized and loses CO2, picks up CoA; H ions are passed to NAD+ which makes NADH + H+

5th step of Krebs Cycle

succinyl CoA's CoA gets replaced with a PO4. It then transfers to GDP then GTP, then gives its PO4 to ADP which creates ATP

6th step of krebs cycle

succinate acid gets oxidizes, and 2 H go to FAD which reduces it to HADH2

7th step of Krebs Cycle

fumarate gets water added to it to form malic acid

8th step of Krebs Cycle

malic acid oxides to create oxaloacetic acid

9th step of Krebs Cycle

oxaloacetic acid loses 2 H and reduces NAD+ to NADH + H+

pantothenic acid

vitamin B that makes coenzyme A (CoA)

acetyl CoA

pantothenic acid converts to CoA + pyruvate dehydrogenase converts to pyruvic acid

Electric Transport Pump 1

FMN and 5+ iron-sulfur centers

- mobile carrier is mobile Q

Electric Transport Pump 2

the cytochrome cb-c1 -> hands off electrons to cytochrome B -> B to Fe-S center ->Fe-s to cytochrome c1 -> cytochrome acts as mobile shuttle that moves electrons to the last pump

- mobile carrier is mobile C

Electric Transport Pump 3

Cu, cytochome a, cytochrome a3, and oxygen

- makes water

Glycogenesis

formation of glycogen from glucose; saving glycogen for a rainy day

- triggers: high blood sugar

- Phosphorylation of glucose -> glucose 6-phosphate -> glucose 1-phosphate -> uridine diphosphate glucose -> glycogen (not in normal glycolysis)

Glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose; withdrawl from rainy day fund

- triggers: low ATP and blood sugar

- Phosphorated branched glycogen -> glucose 1 phosphate -> glucose 6 phosphate (nonspecial cells stop here)-> glucose (only in special cells that have phosphatase)

gluconeogenesis

additional sources of sugar when glycogen is exhausted; triglycerides (lipids); second choice

Lipolysis

the breakdown of fats and other lipids by hydrolysis to release fatty acids; goes to G3P from glycerol; goes from beta oxidation to acetyl CoA

- triggers: increase of SNS

Lipogenesis

the process of converting protein into fatty acids; G3P to glycerol; pyruvate to fatty acids and/or acetyl CoA

alternate sources of fuel for glycolysis/krebs/ETC

amino acids - pyruvic acid

lactic acid - pyruvic acid

glycerol - G3P

lipoproteins

transports fats in the blood, a hollow sphere with a outer shell of protein and inner shell of lipids

Chylomicrons

lightest and largest lipoprotein, on inner surface on the intestine

VLDL

-Very Low Density Lipoprotein

-Formed in the liver to carry lipids

TO the body

LDL

- low density lipoprotein

- unhealthy (depositing lipids in wrong place often that can cause buildup)

- carries 75% of total cholesterol

- repairs damage

HDL

- high density lipoproteins

- healthy type of cholesterol (removes excess cholesterol)

sources of cholesterol in the blood

food and hepatocyte activity

Protien catabolism

triggered by adrenal cortex

- hepatocytes -> amino acids -> fatty acids -> glucose

- amino acids get R group taken off = produces ammonia

- third choice; because of ammonia