Biology grade 12

SBI4U Course

Ether

Ester

Carboxylic acid

Hydroxyl/alcohols

Aldehyde

Amine

Sulflhydryl or Thiol

Hydrolisis

a chemical reaction in which water is used to break down the bonds of a particular substance

Dehydration synthesis

the process of joining 2 molecules or compounds together following the removal of water

Organic compounds

Always contain hydrogen and carbon

Always have covalent bonding between atoms

May be very large, with many atoms

Associated with living things

Inorganic compounds

Associated with non living things

Usually have ionic bonding between atoms

always contain a small number of atoms

usually contain metals and non metals

Functional groups

other atoms that are covalently bonded to the carbon backbone chain.

Are parts of molecules involved in chemical reactions

macromolecules

large complex molecules, usually composed of repeating units of smaller molecules linked by covalent bonds

polymer

a long molecule consisting of many similar smaller building blocks called monomers

monomer

one of the small repeating molecular units that make up a polymer

4 major macromolecules

carbohydrates

lipids

proteins

nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

biological molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Usually polar and has high number of hydroxyl groups

Monosaccharides

Composed of a single, carbon based monomer structure. They are simple sugars with 3-7 carbon atoms

Isomers

molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures

Disaccharides

Composed of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage

Polysaccharides

Carbohydrate polymers of monosaccharides (usually glucose), joined covalently

3 arrangements of glucose produced polysaccharides

glucose, starch, cellulose

glycosidic linkage

the type of covalent bond that connects two monosaccharides together to form a disaccharide (or larger carbohydrate)

How polymers are built

Dehydration synthesis of two glucose (or other) monomers

glucose

fructose

galactose

Lipids

Composed of C, H, and O and hydrophobic

Uses of lipids

Insulate against heat loss

Form protective cushion around major organs

major component of cell membranes

Types of lipids

Fatty Acids

Triglycerides

Phospholipids

Steroids

Waxes

Saturated Fatty Acid

A hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl group with no double bonds between carbon atoms

Monounsaturated fatty acids

A hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl group with 1 double bond between carbon atoms

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

A hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl group with more than 1 double bond between carbon atoms

Kinks

prevent unsaturated fatty acid chains from packing close together, so they stay liquid at room temp

Triglycerides

A lipid made of glycerol bonded to 3 fatty acids through ester linkages

Triglycerides containing saturated fatty acids

Are solid at room temperature

Triglycerides containing unsaturated fatty acids

liquid at room temperature

Hydrogenation

A food preservation process that adds hydrogen to unsaturated fats to make them saturated

Phospholipids

A lipid made of glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group; has a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.

Lipid bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids that forms the when in water, with hydrophilic heads facing water and hydrophobic tails inside.

Sterols

Lipids made of four attached carbon rings. Examples include cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen. Cholesterol is part of animal cell membranes and a precursor for other steroids, but high levels can lead to fatty deposits in blood vessels.

Use of sterols in medicine

Reduce inflammation

inhalers to treat asthma

Used to build muscle for patients with cancer of AIDS

Topical sterol ointments for skin conditions

Waxes

Lipids composed of long, carbon-based chains. They are water repellent and solid at room temperature

Proteins

A polymer that has many different subunits folded into a 3-D structure that serves a certain purpose. Linked by covalent bonds

Functions of protein

catalyzing chemical reactions

providing structural support (bones, skin, hair, nails etc)

transporting substances (in blood, proteins transport O₂

enabling organisms to move (muscle contraction)

 regulating cellular processes (hormones, regulate          genetic activity)

providing defense from disease (antibodies are proteins)

Amino acids

organic molecules composed of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a hydrogen atom. 

Peptide bond

A covalent bond that links amino acids together. It forms between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another through dehydration synthesis (water is released).

Polypeptides

Polymers composed of amino acids linked by covalent bonds. They fold into specific shapes to form proteins.

Denaturation of proteins

A structural change in a protein caused by factors like heat, pH, or chemicals. It causes the intermolecular bonds to break. Once a protein loses its 3d shape it can’t perform its function

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid and contains the genetic information for a cell (holds instruction for making proteins

RNA

ribonucleic acid. It assists the process of decoding DNA information into the amino acid sequences of proteins

Pyrimidine

A type of nitrogenous base with a single-ring structure found in nucleic acids. In DNA and RNA, the pyrimidines are cytosine (C), thymine (T, only in DNA), and uracil (U, only in RNA).

Purines

A type of nitrogenous base with a double-ring structure found in nucleic acids. In DNA and RNA, the purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G).

DNA Base pair rules

In DNA: adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C).

RNA Base pair rules

In RNA: adenine (A) pairs with uracil (U), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C).