Social change under Napoleon

His changes to society

Napoleon was a man of the enlightenment & made sure ordinary people of merit could move up the social ladder through talent & hard work. This wasn’t a true meritocracy but was the most fluid social system in Europe at the time. His Napoleonic code modernised the legal system & brought true equality to France. However, he can be seen as a tyrant who remade a different social system with the same inequalities - replaced one set of privileged aristocracy with another. He brought stability but curbed liberty.

Examples of his meritocratic society

General Augereau’s father was a fruit seller but he was promoted due to his exceptional talent. General Dumas was mixed race and his mother was a slave but he became the 1st officer of African descent in the French Army. Napoleon himself rose to exceptional power through strategy and hard work despite coming from a barely privileged background in Causica.

The Legion of Honour

Was established in 1802 to reward French people who’d served the nation loyally & was granted to over 32000. It had different stages with the Grand Cross being the most prestigious & awarded to those who devoted their lives to service for France. Winners of it received a small salary & a medal & sash. From 1808, the Chevalier de l’Empire was also set up which was a hereditary award lasting 3 generations.

Issues with the Legion of Honour

While it was open to all in theory, it was dominated by the military & out of the 12000 winners, only 1500 went to non military individuals. Napoleon also gave many out to notables to win them over & bolster his regime - making them more likely to receive the award. However, it is still around in France today, showing its longevity.

The Imperial Nobility

After 1804, Napoleon began to award his family titles & he founded the Marshals of France and the Imperial Nobility in 1808. This allowed imperial titles like count, baron and knight to be awarded to people in positions of prestige & these were hereditary, lasting 3 generations. The Marshals of France were the highest honour & awarded to his top generals. 59% went to military men but 22.5% went to nobility. Titles came with land, gifts & pensions, such as a country estate & a salary of 25000 Francs.

Issues with the Imperial Nobility

Contrary to the Legion of Honour, it allowed titles to be used to ensure Napoleon’s ‘favourites’ were kept on side & left people once again with titles they didn’t earn. The scale of the Ancien Regime nobility wasn’t recreated as many died out after 3 generations as they were unable to maintain a new country estate etc. However the meritocratic nature of society was lessened as those rich enough to maintain their positions achieved long term hereditary titles.

Napoleon’s enlightened education system

Little had been achieved by the early revolutionaries to make education available to all, meaning Napoleon claimed credit for the new enlightened system. He established a state primary school in every commune in May 1802 & lycees which provided secondary schooling for boys aged 10-16. 45 of these existed & they provided a boarding education with entrance through a scholarship exam.

The Lycees

Napoleon was far more interested in these than the primary schools as he viewed them as the source of the Empire’s future military & civilian personnel. He ran them using military discipline & a modern curriculum which was secular & offered science. 2400 out of 6400 places at them went to the sons of soldiers & civil servants - the ‘notables’.

Other schools within France

Napoleon allowed other private & church run schools to exist alongside his new state ones as long as the virtues of obedience of the state were instilled into pupils. A popular organisation known as the Brothers of the Christian Schools helped develop and teach these other schools.

The Imperial University

This was established in May 1808 as a supervising body to ensure all education in France conformed to certain standards. It made sure staff gave the required oath of loyalty & obedience to the state & oversaw the setting up of new schools. It also ensured staff received fixed salaries & pensions as well as bonuses if students advanced to higher education & conducted inspections with annual reports to Napoleon. The curriculum was standardised for both state & private schools with various military features incorporated.

Napoleon’s aims within education

It can be argued his reforms of the education system went beyond the need for an educated elite as they ensured obedience & loyalty to the state & to him and fulfilled the needs of the notables. However they did effectively prepare for France’s future.

Napoleon’s attitudes to women

He was largely a traditionalist & this was reflected in his public view that women were destined for marriage which consisted of acquiring & transmitting property & having children. He held little interest in female schooling & deemed primary education sufficient for girls. His attitudes towards women were shown in his easy disregard of Josephine for his new wife Marie-Louis.

Laws introduced surrounding female rights

They were given marginally more control over property when they married in the 1804 Civil Code. However they still couldn’t manage or sell immovable property like land without the consent of their husband & married women couldn’t accept an inheritance without their husband’s authority. Women were allowed to possess immovable goods but if they tried to sell & make a profit from them a third of it had to go into a joint-asset pool with their husband. The possibility of divorce by mutual consent was introduced but women were only allowed to file for divorce on the grounds of adultery if the husband brought his mistress home. A wife’s adultery could result in a 3 month jail sentence.

Censorship in newspapers

The number of Parisian newspapers decreased from 73 to 13 in January 1800 & by 1801 only 4 were allowed to publish. All papers became subject to police supervision & censors were appointed to each from 1809. Papers could only publish official news written by Napoleon or issued by his ministers. In 1810 provincial papers were reduced to 1 per department & the government introduced its own paper called Le Moniteur.

Further restrictions on publishing

An 1808 decree reduced the number of publishing houses in Paris from nearly 200 to 60 & those remaining had to obtain licenses from the police - this also applied to the provinces. The police were granted the power to search a publisher’s shop & seize books. A fine of 2000 francs could be given for possessing illegal works. A further decree in 1810 set up a new censorship board to approve or reject books for publication.

Restrictions on other art forms

Any plays, lectures or posters that appeared in Paris were subject to official reports in an attempt to contain the spread of politically unacceptable material. As a result many theatres closed & could only operate under license & many authors & playwrights fled abroad.

Napoleon’s aims of propaganda

He employed all types of media to project the image he wanted people to see which held a strong element of self-glorification. He wanted to be viewed as the man bringing order out of the chaos & saving France from the revolution. He often linked his Empire to classical times & the reputation of the Romans. He commissioned artists, architects, sculptors & writers to honour his achievements & David was made responsible for paintings - like the Imperial Coronation - & required to judge the suitability of all subject matter.

Long term methods of propaganda

Napoleon embarked on a programme of rebuilding & public works in Paris to create a positive image for himself. He built new roads, markets & a new water supply as well as new buildings with carvings & fountains for statues & sculptures. Pieces like the Arc du Carousel, the Arc du Triomphe, the Vendanne Column & the rebuilding of the Church of the La Madeleine as the Temple of Glory all helped glorify his regime in a long lasting manner.

General religious opinions under Napoleon

He viewed reconciliation with the church as essential due to the destruction previous dismantling of the church had caused. His policies of amalgame & ralliement helped him to gain more means of control through priests’ teachings of acceptance & obedience. The rule of the Directory had allowed catholic worship to become more open so Napoleon contributed to what was already happening by decreeing in 1799 that churches could be open any day of the week. Sunday also once again became a rest day in July 1800.

Napoleon’s reconciliation with the Pope

He made an agreement with the new Pope Pius VII in July 1801 called the Concordat. It made the Pope recognised as the head of the Catholic church & Catholicism recognised as the religion of the majority with Catholic worship becoming freely available. The Pope also recognised France’s new regime & promised not to attempt to reclaim church lands. Bishops & clergy continued to be nominated by the First Consul, paid as civil servants & take an oath of loyalty.

The Organic Articles

Published by Napoleon in 1802 which stated government approval had to be given before any papal legate entered France or any papal document was published. It also stated all teachers who trained priests had to be French & religious toleration was guaranteed to 700000 Protestants & 40000 Jews in France.

Effect of the Concordat

It helped win over many uncertain royalists & reassure the notables that the bien nationaux were safe. He also gained a useful network of loyal clerics through retaining authority over the clergy & this helped to spread state propaganda & curb subversive behaviour. The local prefects & police watched all clergy. It also allowed refractory priests to come out of hiding, church to reopen & the abandoning of the revolutionary calendar. In January 1806 France shifted back to the Gregorian calendar. Churchmen also took more prominent roles in education.

The deterioration of Napoleon’s relationship with the Pope

Their relationship declined due to French ambitions in Italy, the Pope being humiliated at his coronation & Napoleon’s 1806 decision to issue a new ‘official’ Catholic church catechism to be taught in schools without the Pope. This included statements of duty, love, respect, obedience & loyalty & referred to the Emperor as the agent of God’s power. Napoleon imprisoned the Pope in 1809 after France occupied Italy & annexed the papal states to his new kingdom of Italy. He also forced the Pope to sign the Concordat of Fontainebleau in 1813 but it was never put into effect.

Issues with the pre-existing French law

No single law for France existed & the north used customary laws while the south used roman. Different regions had different laws & privileged & despite the revolution getting rid of feudalism, some old laws remained. Napoleon was determined to create an efficient law & order system to retain order & promote loyalty.

The Napoleonic Code

Was formed when a committee of legal experts from different regions gathered to discuss a single code for France. Napoleon received a draft in 1800 & made several amendments. There were some new laws included but it was mainly a consolidation of all French laws into one place. It confirmed some revolutionary changes - fair punishment, equality before the law - the abolition of feudalism & removal of church privilege, France as a secular state, freedom of conscience, the legal rights of the purchasers of the bien nationaux & the favouring of employers over employees with workers associations being banned. Was the Civil Code in 1804 & renamed to the Code Napoleon in 1807.

Controversial areas of the code

The father/husband was confirmed as the head of the family. Children were subordinate to their fathers & could be imprisoned by them for bad behaviour. A father’s permission to marry was needed until daughters were 21 & sons 25 & an unmarried women couldn’t be a guardian or witness a legal document. Divorce was permissible but restricted for women on grounds of adultery & female inheritance rights were restricted. Legitimate children couldn’t be disinherited & 75%of property had to be equally dispersed between all legitimate offspring - replacing primogeniture.

Further codes commissioned by Napoleon - 1806-1808

A code on civil procedure standardised court practice in relation to the Civil Code in 1806. A commercial code was passed to provide guideline for trade & businesses, including debt & bankrupcy in 1807. A code on criminal procedures maintained the practice of trial by jury in 1808 - but the double jury system disappeared in 1811- & permitted arrest without trial. Juries would be selected by prefects for major cases.

Napoleon’s economic policy - Taxation

He kept the contribution fonciere - land tax - bulk of government revenue - that had been inherited by the Directory. The contribution personelle mobiliere - tax on personal property - was also collected in urban areas but brought in a comparatively smaller amount of income. Other direct taxes continued as before & Napoleon sought to increase revenue & make collection more effective.

Napoleon’s economic policy - Taxation continued

The Cadastre - new land register - was introduced 1807 to measure the value of land & recalculate the land tax. It made tax fairer & ensured farmers who’d increased the value of their land paid more. However only a fifth of the country had been assessed by 1815. Towns and cities were allowed to levy an octrois on consumer goods entering them from Sept 1803 - replaced the contribution personelle mobiliere. Each department was also appointed tax collectors & inspectors who were paid in proportion to the tax they collected & their tax receipts were passed to receivers were were inspected by the government.

Napoleon’s economic policy - the Cour de Comptes

This was set up in September 1807 as a central bureau for handling the state’s finances. It kept detailed accounts of income & expenditure & ministries had to have certified authorisation for the release of money.

Negatives of the new taxation system

The continuous war in Europe & the cost of maintaining the army & empire drained away any extra revenue from France & caused the government to heavily rely on duties and indirect taxation. Taxes on alcohol, salt & tobacco quadrup