Psychology studyguide exam 2

Nuremberg trials

Trials after WWII where Nazi doctors were punished for unethical human experiments. These trials led to new research ethics rules.

Nuremberg Code principles

Voluntary consent, avoid harm, participants can quit anytime, experiments must have scientific value, and researchers must stop if danger occurs.

Why research ethics matter

They protect participants, prevent abuse, and help keep science honest and trustworthy.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Researchers studied Black men with syphilis without telling them the truth and withheld treatment.

Ethical problems: deception, lack of informed consent, racism, and denying medical treatment.

Milgram Experiment

Participants thought they were giving painful electric shocks to someone to test obedience to authority.

Ethical problems: deception, emotional stress, and pressure to continue.

Stanford Prison Experiment

Students were assigned prisoner or guard roles in a simulated prison.

Ethical problems: psychological harm, abuse of power, and poor researcher oversight.

Declaration of Helsinki

International guidelines for ethical medical research that require informed consent, risk assessment, and protection of participants.

National Research Act

U.S. law that created research oversight systems and ethics review boards.

Belmont Report principles

1. Respect for persons (informed consent)
   
   

2. Beneficence (maximize benefits, reduce harm)
   
   

3. Justice (fair treatment)
   
   

Informed consent

Participants must be told the purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and that they can withdraw anytime.

Deception

It is difficult because participants must normally know what the study involves, so deception must be justified and followed by debriefing.

Consent for minors / assent

Parents give consent, and the child gives assent (agreement to participate).

Protecting identity

Use anonymity, ID numbers, confidential records, and secure storage.

Coercion

When someone feels forced or pressured to participate.

Is payment coercion?

Usually not if the payment is reasonable and not extremely large.

Risk–benefit analysis

Researchers compare possible harms and benefits to decide if the study should happen.

Possible benefits

Scientific knowledge, helping society, medical progress, or participant insight.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research to ensure it follows ethical guidelines.

Expedited review / minimal risk

Minimal risk means harm is no greater than everyday life; expedited review is a faster IRB review for low-risk studies.

Experiment characteristics

Manipulate an independent variable, measure a dependent variable, and control other variables.

True experiment vs quasi-experiment

True experiments use random assignment; quasi-experiments do not.

Confounding variables

Outside variables that affect results and must be controlled.

Factor and levels

A factor is an independent variable; levels are the different conditions.

Between-subjects design

Different participants are placed in different conditions.

Within-subjects design

The same participants experience all conditions.

Advantage of within-subjects

Controls individual differences and uses fewer participants.

Longitudinal study

Follows the same participants over a long period of time.

Cross-sectional study

Compares different age groups at the same time.

Matched-subjects design

Participants are paired based on similar characteristics before assignment.

Counterbalancing

Changing the order of conditions to prevent order effects.

All possible orders

Every possible order of conditions is used.

Incomplete counterbalancing

Only some orders are used.

Latin Square

A method where each condition appears once in each order position.

Internal validity

Whether the independent variable truly caused the change in the dependent variable.

External validity

How well results apply to real-world situations.

Construct validity

Whether the test measures the concept it claims to measure

Content validity

Whether a test covers all parts of the concept.

Criterion validity

Whether a measure predicts or matches an outcome.

Types:

• Concurrent validity
  
  

Predictive validity

Threats to validity

Confounding variables, bias, demand characteristics, and selection problems.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement.

Ways to test reliability:

• Test–retest
  
  

• Inter-rater reliability
  
  

• Internal consistency
  
  

Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

Do good and avoid causing harm

Fidelity and Responsibility

Researchers must build trust and take responsibility.

Integrity

Researchers must be honest and accurate.

Justice

Research benefits and risks must be shared fairly.