AP Psychology Unit 3: Development

Psychoactive Drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Physical Dependance

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

Psychological Dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Alcohol Dependence (Alcoholism)

alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal if suspended, and a drive to continue use

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

Methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

Ecstacy

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid

Near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Marijuana

dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant, and has the characteristics of a stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

Agonist

a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

a chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

Blood-brain barrier

a mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross

Reverse tolerance

a condition in which less and less alcohol causes intoxication

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

Genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Monozygotic twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

Dizygotic twins

fraternal twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time

Temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

X Chromosome

the sex chromosome that is present in both sexes: singly in males and doubly in females

Y Chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males

Gender Role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Gender identity

our sense of being male or female

Gender typing

the process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender

Zygote

fertilized egg

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Critical Period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Infantile Amnesia

inability to remember events before age 3

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Object Permanence

a sensorimotor child developes the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Egocentrism

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Artificialism

the belief of the preoperational child that all objects are made by people

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

Theory of Mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe (empathy)

Animistic Thought

giving non living objects their own feelings and thoughts

Zones of Proximal Development (ZPD)

the difference between two levels of linguistic (cognitive) performance--that which the student can do independently and that which he or she can do with the help of an adult or more capable peers

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Pre-operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic, are egocentric, and believes in artificialism

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events and understand conservation

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts and metacognition

Rooting Reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch

Sucking Reflex

reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

Grasping Reflex

an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand

Moro reflex

reflex in which a newborn strectches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment

Babinski reflex

reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

Pre-conventional morality

first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior

Conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior

Post-conventional morality

Kohlberg's highest stage of morality: occurs late in life and is a personal morality, developed by the adult and which supersedes society's rules, laws, and restrictions

Stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

The Heinz Dilemma

stealing a drug he cannot afford in order to save his wife's life

Internalization

process by which a norm becomes a part of an individual's personality, thereby conditioning the individual to conform to society's expectations

Scaffolding

the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth (Vygotsky)

Zones of Proximal Development

(Vygotsky) distance between what an individaul can accomplish on independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner (develop quickly or slowly depends on these zones)

Cross-sectional Study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Longitudinal Study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Terminal Decline

acceleration in deterioration of cognitive functioning 4 years before death

Social Clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Stage of Grief and Loss

responses to death and loss: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Death Deferral

the phenomenon that death rate increases when people reach their birthdays

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Jean Piaget

researcher on cognitive development

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

Harry Harlow

development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span

G. Stanley Hall

American psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

Carol Gilligan

Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships, while men's are more rigid

Lev Vygotsky

child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research