unit 5: learning

acquisition/association

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. 

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together

aversive consequence

associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

behavioral perspective

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

biological preparedness

idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses due to evolutionary history

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus—the conditioned stimulus (CS)—when paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response—the unconditioned stimulus (US)—results in a learned, or conditioned, response (CR) when the CS is presented.

cognitive maps

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

conditioning

to inculcate a response or behavior in an organism by means of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or other behaviorist paradigms (see behaviorism). the term implies that the learning is largely automatic, based on processes more like reflexes than conscious mental activity.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

counter conditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors

extinction

a procedure in which pairing of stimulus events is discontinued, either by presenting the conditioned stimulus alone or by presenting the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus independently of one another

fixed interval

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

fixed ratio

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus

higher order conditioning

in classical conditioning, a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus of one experiment acts as the unconditioned stimulus of another, for the purpose of conditioning a neutral stimulus.

insight learning

a cognitive form of learning involving the mental rearrangement or restructuring of the elements in a problem to achieve a sudden understanding of the problem and arrive at a solution

instinct drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by adding stimuli reinforcers

primary reinforcement

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

secondary reinforcement

in operant conditioning, the process in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to influence the future probability of a particular response by virtue of being paired with another stimulus that naturally enhances such probability.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

social learning

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

the ability to distinguish among different stimuli (e.g., to distinguish a circle from an ellipse) and to respond differently to them.

superstitious behaviors

the behavior that results from accidental reinforcement of an action so that the organism continues to repeat it.

taste aversions

the association of the taste of a food or fluid with an aversive stimulus (usually gastrointestinal discomfort or illness), leading to a very rapid and long-lasting aversion to, or at the least a decreased preference for, that particular taste.

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

variable interval

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

variable raito

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

vicarious learning

the conditioning of an animal to perform an act that it observes in a member of the same or a different species.

law of effect

thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

negative punishment

punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is removed as a consequence of a response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli.

observational learning

learning by observing others

one trial conditioning

states that learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated pairings

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction

positive punishment

behavior that is decreased because of the addition of a consequence