Research Methods + Data Analysis EXAM 1

Correlational Research

When there is a relationship between the two variables.

Coefficient Technique

A statistical measure of the strength of a linear relationship between two variables.

Standardization

The process of putting different variables on the same scale.

One of the most used statistical programs that has opened up the use of sophisticated techniques to those who want to engage in research.

SPSS

Statistics

Describes a set of tools and techniques used for describing, organizing, and interpreting information or data.

Descriptive Statistics

Organize and describe the characteristics of a collection of data.

Mode

The most frequently occurring response in a data set.

Median

The middle number in a distribution ranked from low to high.

Mean

The average number when you add up all of the sets.The

The Standard Deviation

The average amount of variation in a set of scores.

Inferential Statistics

Used to make inferences from a smaller group of data to a larger one.

What type of statistics is used to organize and describe the characteristics of a collection of data?

Descriptive Statistics

Seven characteristics of scientific method explanations

Empirical, Rational, Testable, General, Tentative, Rigorously evaluated, Parsimonious

Empirical

They are based on objective and systematic data, often collected in controlled settings 

Rational

They follow logical rules and are consistent with known facts and established scientific procedure 

Testable

Can be verified or lead to specific predictions 

General

Provide broad explanatory power not limited to a specific set of circumstances 

Tentative

Scientifics employ falsifying methods. That is, scientists are willing to show their hypothesis are incorrect. 

Rigorously evaluated

scientific explanations are tested through careful research and experimentation 

Parsimonious

scientific explanations use the fewest of assumptions to reach the solution. 

Can we ever prove that our hypothesis is right or wrong?

Never.

What does proof require?

Years of replication.

Conformational approach

Looking for instances that prove this idea. 

Dis-conformational approach

Looking for instances that *disprove* this idea. 

Null hypothesis

the hypothesis that there is no effect, or that your independent variable had __no influence__ on your dependent variable – that your theory is wrong. 

Correlational Research 

there is a relationship between two variables

The more time you spend on social media, the less happy you are. What type of correlation is this?

Negative correlation

The less you exercise, the less happy you feel. What type of correlation is this?

Positive correlation

2 problems with correlational research

The directionality problem and the third variable problem

The directionality problem

Does A cause B, or does B cause A? 

The third variable problem

it's impossible to tell that some third variable Z is actually responsible for the relationship between A and B

Experimental research

is a better method for finding causal relationships because it controls a lot of the third variables that can influence those relationships.

Why is controlling variables important?

if everything in your study conditions is the same except for your IV, then it ensures your IV must be responsible for the relationship.

Independent variables

variables whose values are chosen and set by the experimenter

**Ben decides to do a study where he randomly assigns people to either run 3 miles per day or swim for 30 minutes each day. He then measures the amount of weight loss in two weeks. What is the independent variable in the study?** 

Type of exercise (3 miles vs 30 minutes) 

**Ben decides to do a study where he randomly assigns people to either run 3 miles per day or swim for 30 minutes each day. He then measures the amount of weight loss in two weeks. What is the dependent variable in the study?** 

B

Experimental designs

can establish cause-and-effect relationships, as the __only thing__ that differs between conditions is the presence of the independent variable. 

Random assignment

All participants are just as likely in be in the control group as they are to be in the experimental group. 

Theories

are formal statements about the relationships among the independent variables and the dependent variables in a given area of research. 

Hypothesis

attempt to organize data and relationships among specific variables within a portion of large, more comprehensive theories

**The hypothesis "if children play programming games, such as Minecraft, then they will be better at math than children who do not play these games" is an example of what type of hypothesis?** 

Synthetic hypothesis

**A researcher thinks that managerial sense of humor and employee satisfaction are linked. He interviews workers at several large companies and finds that the workers who rate their managers high in sense of humor (0 = not at all funny | 100 = extremely funny) rate their own satisfaction higher (0 = not at all satisfied | 100 = extremely satisfied)**. Is this correlational or experimental?

Correlational

Four components of the scientific method

Observation

Tentative explanation/Theorizing or hypothesizing

Data collection/Further observation

Conclusions

Objectivity

refers to making **empirical** **measurements** (using objectively quantifiable observations) 

Confirmation

refers to making sure the original results can be confirmed and replicated 

Pure replication

refers to a second study using the exact same methods as the first study and finding the exact same results (reliability).

replication with extension approach

taking an existing study and then extending it with a new set of variables

Self-Correction 

involves the researcher being willing to correct their misconceptions and alter their perceptions  

Control

refers to directly being able to manipulate variables to see their impact OR to see what other potential variables can contribute to the results of the research project 

Three characteristics of a psychological experiment

Manipulating/Measuring independent variables

Measuring dependent variables

Controlling extraneous variables

Extraneous variables

are any uncontrolled, undesired variables that may influence the dependent variable

In one study, students read a fictitious job application. The applications are identical except that half have a female name (“Joan”) and half have a male name (“John”). The students rate the likelihood of the applicant succeeding at the job. What is the dependent variable?

The students’ ratings of the applicants’ success 

Students read a fictitious job application in the National Football League (NFL). The applications are identical except half have a female name (“Joan”) and half have a male name (“John”). Given gender differences in the NFL, “John” applies for quarterback and “Joan” applies as a coach. The students rate the likelihood of the applicant succeeding at the job. What is the a potential extraneous variable?

The type of position the applicant applies for & The gender of the students 

7 Characteristics of the Research Hypothesis 

Theories Versus Hypotheses

Types of statements

Confirmational strategies

Dis-confirmational strategies

Types of reasoning

Directional versus non-directional research

A new view of hypothesis testing – Paradigm shifts

Analytic statements are always

true

Contradictory statements are always

false

Synthetic statements are always

true or false

The principle of falsifiability (or falsification) refers to the idea that

Research should be capable of producing results that do not support the hypothesis. 

Inductive logic

involves reasoning from specific cases to general conclusions or theories

Deductive logic

involves reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions or predictions 

Jasmine uses her knowledge of past research on social facilitation to help formulate a hypothesis for her experiment. This example illustrates

Deductive logic

Directional research

involves predictions about a specific, single outcome of an experiment

Non-directional research

involves not making any specific predictions concerning the outcome of an experiment

“Depressed individuals who receive therapy will be less depressed than those in the control group who do not receive therapy.” This hypothesis is an example of a

directional research hypothesis

Variables

are events or behaviors that can assume two or more values

2 things variables can be based on

Research tradition & Theory

Operational definitions

“define” the independent and dependent variables in terms of the operations needed to produce them

4 types of independent variables

Physiological-based independent variables 

Experience-based independent variables 

Stimulus-based independent variables 

Participant-based independent variables 

Physiological-based independent variables 

manipulate the participants’ physiological state

Experience-based independent variables

involve manipulating the amount (or type) of training / learning a participant receives

Stimulus-based independent variables

involve manipulating some aspect of the environment

Participant-based independent variables

focus on participant characteristics

Natalie conducts an experiment in which she randomly assigns half the individuals to drink alcohol and half to drink tonic water that they think is alcohol. What kind of independent variable is being used? 

Physiological

Confounding

refers to a situation in which the results of a study can be attributed to either the operation of an IV or the operation of an EV

Uncontrolled variability

may make it difficult or even impossible to detect any real effects of the IV between the conditions

Type I Error

In this error, you conclude that your hypothesis was true when in fact it was false

Type II Error

With this error, you conclude that your hypothesis was false when in fact it was true 

A researcher develops a new study method to help students. He gets scores from students at Time 1, teaches them the new study method, and looks at their Time 2 scores. Since students did better at Time 2, he concludes that his new study method had a positive effect. What he doesn’t know is that the students stole the Time 2 answer key, which is why they improved! What error did he make in concluding that his new study method improved student understanding?

Type I Error

2 Characteristics of a good dependent variable

Validity & Reliability

A researcher finds that she can consistently reproduce study results when she repeats the study design. She has found high:

Reliability

Range effects occur when variables have

upper / lower limits 

Floor effects

refer to average scores being very low

Ceiling effects

refers to average scores being very high

Range effects can affect data in two ways

1. They can decrease the variability between two or more treatment conditions 
2. They can decrease the variability within each condition 

Nuisance variables

involve unwanted variables that can cause the variability of scores within groups to increase

Difference between nuisance and extraneous variables

Nuisance variables work within conditions (while EV’s work between conditions)

6 ways to control extraneous variables

1. Randomization
2. Elimination
3. Constancy
4. Balancing
5. Repreated measures
6. Counterbalancing

Randomization

control technique that ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment 

Elimination

a control technique in which the researcher tries to remove all EV’s from an experiment

Constancy

a control technique in which EV’s are reduced to a single value that is experienced by all participants

Balancing

a control procedure that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups

Repeated measures 

control techniques expose participants to all levels of the IV

Counterbalancing

a procedure for controlling order effects by presenting different treatment sequences, and it goes well with the repeated measures design

within-subject counterbalancing

presenting different treatment sequences to the same participant  

within group counterbalancing

presenting different treatment sequences to different participants

Complete counterbalancing

all of the possible treatment sequences are presented

Incomplete (partial) counterbalancing  

only a portion of all possible sequences are presented

2 issues with counterbalancing

1. Sequence or order effects can influence results
2. Carryover effects may also influence results

6 Carryover effects

1. Learning
2. Fatigue
3. Habituation
4. Sensitization
5. Contrast
6. Adaptation

Learning

involves one treatment “carrying over” to impact performance on a second treatment