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Fallacy
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments.
Fallacious arguments are very common and can be quite persuasive, at least to the causal reader or listener. You can find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, and other sources.
Hasty Generalization
Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small).
ex. stereotypes
missing the point
The premises of an argument support a particular conclusion--but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
A faulty assumption that the cause of a relationship is the result of what preceded it. Also known as Faulty Causality.
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates to: "after this, therefore because of this." It can also be translate as: X then Y, therefore X causes Y.
Slippery slope/camel’s nose
The arguer claims that some form of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there's really not enough evidence for that assumption.
The arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the "slippery slope," we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; he or she assumes we can't stop halfway “down the hill.”
Weak Analogy
Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy.
Appeal to Authority
Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing.
If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really isn't much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority.
Appeal to Pity
The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone – it includes the technique of pathos.
Appeal to ignorance
an appeal to ignorance lacks conclusive evidence (data, facts, statistics) about the issue being discussed. Therefore, the arguer states that one should accept his or her conclusion on the presented issue.
Straw Man
One way of making our own arguments stronger is to anticipate and respond in advance to the arguments that an opponent might make. The arguer sets up a wimpy, distorted, or misrepresented version of the opponent’s position (counterargument) and tries to score points by knocking it down.
Red Herring
Partway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience from what's really being discussed. Often, the arguer never returns to the original issue.
False Dichotomy
In false dichotomy, the arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first place.
Equivocation
Equivocation is sliding between two or more different meanings of a single word or phrase that is important to the argument.
Begging the Question
A complicated fallacy; an argument that begs the question asks the reader to simply accept the conclusion without providing real evidence by saying the same point in different words.
the argument either relies on a premise that says the same thing as the conclusion (which you might hear referred to as "being circular" or "circular reasoning"), or simply ignores an important (but questionable) assumption that the argument rests on.
Sometimes people use the phrase "beg the question" as a sort of general criticism of arguments, to mean that an arguer hasn't given very good reasons for a conclusion, but that's not the meaning we're going to discuss here.
Non Sequiter
A gap in the sequence of your logic. Usually what happened is that the writer leaped from A to B
and then jumped to D, leaving out step C of an argument he/ she thought through in her head, but did
not put down on paper.
Circular Reasoning
One statement is true because of the other statement, and the other statement is true because of the previous statement. A claim is supported by its reasoning; the argument begins where it ends. Often depicted as: X is true because of Y and Y is true because of X.
Reductio Ad Absurdum
also known as "reducing to an absurdity." It involves extending someone’s arguments to ridiculous proportions then criticizing the result that no reasonable person would take such a position.
Poisoning the Well
Attacking an argument by attacking the opponent (discrediting them) before they can present their argument.
Appeal to tradition
Because something has always been done a particular way, it should continue to be done that way.
Stacking the Deck
Any evidence that supports an opposing argument is rejected, omitted, or ignored.
Hypothesis Contrary to the Fact
Offering poorly supported claims about what might have happened in the past or future if (the hypothetical part) circumstances or conditions were different. The fallacy also entails treating future hypothetical situations as if they are fact.
Moving the Goalposts
Demanding from an opponent that he or she address more and more points after the initial counter-argument has been satisfied refusing to concede or accept the opponent’s argument.
Satire
Making fun of some aspect of culture, society, and/or human nature in an attempt to improve it or inspire change.
Satire vs. Comedy
Satire differs from comedy in that:
-Satire seeks to correct, improve, or reform through ridicule
-Comedy aims simply to amuse its audience
-Satire uses laughter as a weapon against something that exists outside the work itself.
Formal (Direct) Satire
The persona (speaker) uses first-person point of view
This speaker may address the reader or a character within the work
Example: “A Modest Proposal”
Indirect Satire
Some format other than direct address to the reader
This is usually a fictional narrative, in which objects of satire are characters
Example: Animal Farm
Horation
Named for the Roman satirist Horace
Tolerant, funny, sophisticated, witty, wise, self-effacing
Aims to correct through humor.
Directs wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humor toward what it identifies as folly, rather than evil.
Juvenalian
Named after Roman satirist Juvenal
-Angry, caustic, personal, relentless, bitter, serious
-Provokes a darker kind of laughter; addresses social evil and points with contempt to the corruption of men and institutions through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule.
-Often pessimistic, characterized by irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humor
Optimist
-Likes people, but thinks they are rather blind and foolish
-Tells the truth with a smile
-Cures people of their ignorance
-Writes in order to heal
Pessimist
-Loves individuals, hates mankind
-Aim is to wound, to punish, to destroy
-Uses Juvenalian satire
Diatribe/Invective
Direct attack
-Stated without irony or sarcasm
-name calling, personal abuse, etc.
Farce
-Exciting laughter through exaggerated, improbable situations.
-Usually contains low comedy: quarreling, fighting, coarse wit, horseplay, noisy singing, boisterous conduct, trickery, clownishness, drunkenness, slap-stick.
Caricature
Distortion for emphasis
Usually focuses on powerful subjects
Emphasizes physical characteristics in order to make deeper criticism
Grotesque
Creating a tension between laughter and horror or revulsion; the essence of all “sick humor” or “black humor”
Understatement
A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately makes a situation seem less important than it is
Juxaposition
the arrangement of two or more characters, ideas, or words side-by-side for the purpose of comparison, contrast, or character development
Sarcasm
taunting on a personal level by saying something and meaning the opposite
Parody
-Imitation which, through distortion and exaggeration, evokes amusement, derision, and sometimes scorn
-Borrows a pre-existing form
Burlesque
Vulgar
-Treats subject with ridicule, vulgarity, distortion, and contempt
Mock-Heroic
Grand diction, lofty style
-Takes a trivial or repellent theme and treats it with grandeur or feigned solemnity
Analyzing Satire
1. What's the tone of the satire?
(grim, cheerful, sardonic, mock serious, optimistic, etc.)
2. What type of satire is this?
(direct vs. indirect)
3. What is the writer satirizing?
(what aspect of society are they trying to criticize?)
4. What is the writer's purpose in satirizing this
subject?
(what do they want to change?)
5. What literary techniques does the writer use in
this satire?
(hyperbole, understatement, irony, humor, etc.)
More about Satire
A satire wants to EFFECT CHANGE in the world.
A satire usually achieves this effect by going to an extreme degree of exaggeration (or hyperbole).
If a satirist can elicit an emotional response from his reader, he can get them to listen to a more reasonable suggestion
Exaggeration
To enlarge, increase, or represent something beyond normal bounds so that it becomes ridiculous and its faults can be seen.
Hyperbole
exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.
Absurdum
Taking something to an extreme to make a point
Understatement
diminishes statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.
Incongruity
To present things that are out of place or are absurd in relation to its surroundings.
Reversal
To present the opposite of the normal order (the order of events, standard order of something obvious.)
Situational Irony
A contrast between what is expected and what actually occurs.
Verbal Irony
When a writer or character says one something but means the
opposite.
Understatement
A form of Irony that creates emphasis by saying less than what is true or appropriate
Sarcasm
The use of words that mean the opposite of what you really want to say especially in order to insult someone, to show irritation, or to be funny.
Judgement
When character, intelligence, beliefs, decisions or preferences are questioned in a way that causes shame
Play/Wit
mockery, imitation, and clever humor
Misunderstanding
Intentional misinterpretation or misunderstanding of in a conversation, situation, or circumstance
Parody
To imitate the techniques and/or style of some person, place, or thing.
