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motivation
the desire or need that is strong enough to create change in our behavior
Who proposed the instinct theory?
William James (based on work by Charles Darwin)
Instinct Theory
motivations are innate, specific for individual species, and stereotyped/occur automatically - includes 20 physical instincts and 17 mental instincts
Who proposed the Drive Reduction Theory?
Clark Hull
Hull's Drive Reduction Theory
our most basic motivations stem from trying to reduce needs in our body, the need creating a drive that we experience as a state of tension that makes us react with drive reducing behaviors when strong enough
primary motives
biological needs related to survival
secondary motives
based on learned needs
stimulus motives
innate needs that are not necessary for survival, based on the need for intellectual stimulation and curiosity
Homeostatic Regulation Theory
motivation is related to the body's desire to maintain equilibrium - our brain and body work together to monitor resources and we feel the motivation to seek out what we lack in times of deficit and the opposite in times of surplus
Arousal Theory
based on Yerkes-Dodson law - motivation helps us achieve the optimal state of arousal, which changes based on how challenging the task is (less than moderate arousal for challenging tasks - focus, higher than moderate arousal for easy tasks - high performance rate)
Yerkes-Dodson Law
optimal levels of performance occur when we are at a moderate state of arousal
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
a pyramid in which there are 5 levels of motivators: level one is survival, level two is safety and security, level three is esteem and self-esteem, level four is self actualization, and five is self transcendence - you can only move up the levels once the lower one's needs are met
sensation of hunger
the manifestation of a variety of physiological, emotional, and social triggers from food
stomach
the initiator of the motivation of hunger in most early theories
1912 - Walter Cannon and A.L. Washburn
experiment - Washburn swallowed a gastric balloon that measured the contractions of the stomach, then pressed a lever whenever he felt the sensations of hunger - the pair matched the timing of the stomach contractions with the experience of hunger pangs, concluded the two were linked
lateral hypothalamus
triggers the feeling of hunger when stimulated and the motivation to seek out food
ventrimedial hypothalamus
triggers the cessation of the motivation of hunger and the feeling of satiation - was destroyed in one study, causing a rat to be constantly hungry and never feel full
hypothalamus
monitors the body's glucose, lipids, and hormones to maintain the equilibrium we need
hormones: ghrelin; insulin; lepid
secreted from empty stomach; from pancreas; from fat cells
body composition
ratio of body fat to lean body tissue
Set Point Theory
we have a "thermostat" in regards to weight - our body is primed to maintain a certain weight and when we dip below it, our metabolism slows and hunger increases - this is coded in our genes
non-physiological triggers for motivation of hunger
stressed or depressed (because of activation of reward centers in our brain when we eat comfort foods), lunch time (function of temporal conditioning), people around us eating (because of social affiliations and connectedness), and thinking/talking about food
emotion
both a mind and body experience (facial expressions, body posturing, physiological arousal and accompanying thoughts) that influences the heart, brain, and entire body
Emotion is a _ function that _
a highly adaptive function that alerts us when we should be fearful, helps trigger fight of flight response, and helps bond humans
Emotions are accompanied with _
changes in the brain, your hormones, heart rate, respiration, and pupil size
amygdala
key to processing emotions, especially fear
autonomic nervous system
directly linked with experience of emotions, the sympathetic subdivision triggering reactions to fear that include increased heart rate and respiration and slowed digestion
1970 studies found that _
basic emotions were well understood by almost all cultures despite language barrier because of universal facial expressions
Robert Plutchik
Plutchik's wheel, which has 8 basic emotions: joy, acceptance, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and anticipation - proposed that combinations of emotions are created when neighboring emotions occur at the same time
Common Sense Theory
relies on intuition of how emotions might occur, meaning emotions trigger response
James-Lange Theory
body based arousal triggers emotion, refuted because we can do things like cry for other reasons than sadness
Cannon-Bard
maintains that emotions and body base darousal appear at the same time following a stimulus
Who proposed the Two-Factor Theory?
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
Two-Factor Theory
stimulus causes physiological response that will be cognitively as sorrow or joy and then the appropriate emotion will follow
Dual Pathway for Emotions
there are two paths for emotions, the first one being an instant, almost reflexive experience of emotions and the second being a consciously based emotional reaction
Richard Lazarus (emotion)
described the second pathway for emotions as a cognitive appraisal of your environment allowing for a full assessment and analysis of our surroundings that brings in past experience and expectations
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
states that emotional expressions may contribute to the emotion you experience in the way that a smile signals happiness
stress
a physiological and psychological reaction to the challenges, conflicts, and demands that we face in our live
stress can be _/_ and _/_
external/internal and real/imagined
Richard Lazarus (stress)
proposed the importance of how we assess and appraise situations in regards to the reaction that will follow - if we see something as threatening, we will be stressed, if we see it as a challenge, we will be more focused
microstressors
small but annoying occurrences in life that can pile up and have a severe effect
eustress
stress that comes from positive sources
Approach-Approach Conflict
where we have two possible options to choose from and both are equally desirable
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
where we have two possible options and both are undesirable, often causing us to give up and enter a state of inaction
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
when you only have one option but it has both desirable and undesirable qualities, often leading to ambivalence/mixed-feelings
Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict
when you have two options, each with desirable and undesirable qualities - often leads to people seeking validation and bouncing back and forth between options
Hans Selye
best known researcher in the field of stress, proposed the General Adaptation Syndrome
General Adaptation Syndrome
what the body goes through when confronting a distressor/eustressor/microstressory - three phases: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Alarm
first phase of the General Adaptation Syndrome response: occurs right as the individual encounters the stressor and body responds with the action of the sympathetic nervous system while preparing fight or flight response
Resistance
body is functioning in a state of sympathetic energy and remaining ready to continue fight or flight response - remaining too long in this stage leads to higher chance of exhaustion/illness
Exhaustion
body returns to a parasympathetic state either because stressor is resolved or body's resources have been depleted - you become more susceptible to cold/flu and will feel mental/physical fatigue due to running the body beyond normal functioning levels
pscyhoneuroimmunology
the study of the relationship between your immune system function, your endocrine system function, and your overall mental well being
Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale
a test designed to measure stress in your life by measuring "Life Change Units" - events that happened within the last year causing eustress/distress
Stress makes us more prone to _
lifestyle illnesses, like heart disease and high blood pressure
_ combat the effects of stress.
healthy behaviors and coping skills
longitudinal research
used by developmental psychologists - studying the same group of subjects over a long period of time
cross-sectional research
used by developmental psychologists - studying groups of different people from a variety of age groups, yielding results must faster than longitudinal research
nature (human development)
looks at heredity
heredity
the transmission of genetic material that dictates physical aspects like eye color and can also dictate psychological traits (behavioral traits like shyness and psychological illnesses like schizophrenia can be passed down)
the sperm and egg contribute _ each to the _ they create when _
23 chromosomes; new cell; the sperm fertilizes the egg
genotype
strands of DNA that code for traits
phenotype
the observable result of the genotype
prenatal period
begins when the new cell is created, has 3 stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage, and fetal stage
germinal stage
stage 1 of the prenatal period - begins at the moment of conception and continues for two weeks - the created cell (zygote) burrows into the walls of the woman's uterus and triggers the hormone changes of pregnancy
embryonic stage
stage 2 - begins 2 weeks after conception, continues till week 8 - zygote is now called embryo, which continues to grow and starts developing structures that will the brain, CNS, and other internal organs
fetal stage
begins 8 weeks after conception and continues till birth (which typically occurs at 38 weeks) - embryo is now called fetus, which continues to develop internal organs, brain cells, and sensory organs according to DNA's instructions so that it will be able to sustain itself outside the womb
critical period
a time during development where the individual is highly sensitive to outside influence
nurture (human development)
prenatal period is a critical period because exposure to teratogens during this time can alter the normal course of in-utero development negatively - exposure to chemicals, radiation, nicotine, and smoking can also cause severe harm to the fetus
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
one of the potential consequences of drinking alcohol while pregnant
neonate
what you become at the moment of birth - developed prenatally and born with a set of reflexes and abilities, some of which can work instantly
newborn's vision
eyes are still developing, so a baby's clearest vision is of things 19 cm away, with anything closer or farther being blurry
Newborns prefer _ to pale and soft colors
complex and contrasting patterns and colors
Babies are born with a preference to _
look at faces
1991 - Johnson and Morton
conducted a study in which babies showed a greater interest in looking at images resembling human faces than random ones
newborn's hearing
babies are born with a preference for female voices and the ability to recognize their mother's voice because they began hearing in utero
reflexes
automatic behaviors we are born with that will occur in specific situations - have adaptive functions
rooting reflex
when you touch a newborn on the cheek, they will turn in that direction - adaptively, this along with the reflex of sucking helps newborns in the process of nursing/feeding
grasping reflex
when you place a finger in a newborn's hand, they will hold on to it tightly - adaptively, this helps newborns hold on to their caregiver/parent
moro reflex
when startled by a loud noise or sudden change in position, babies will throw their arms outward and stretch out their hands
babinski reflex
when the bottom of their foot is stoked, babies will spread out their toes
stepping reflex
babies will raise their legs up if they are being held upright and their foot touches a flat surface
maturation
the physical development of the body and nervous system after birth, which occurs at a rapid pace
motor development
depends on maturation - most babies can hold their chin and head up at one month, sit alone at six to seven months, and walk by themselves are 12 months - rates are almost universal but can vary
Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist - one of the best known researchers in the field of cognitive development - noticed that children seem to give similar answers to questions when at the same approximate age and that the answers reflected a different style of thinking that adults
equilibration
the idea that humans seek balance and what they think and know about the world and what we see
assimilation
adding newly learned concepts into existing schema without altering it - done by most children
sensory motor stage
first stage of cognitive development - occurs from birth to two years old, centers around the child's sensory and movement experiences as the driving force for cognitions and schemas are developed based on them - major milestone: object permanence
object permanence
knowing that an object continues to exist even when not visible, develops around 9 months of age
preoperational stage
the second stage of cognitive development - begins at 2 years old and continues to 7 years - child begins to use symbolic thought, which fuels language acquisition - children in this stage are highly egocentric and play is driven by fantasy and make believe
symbolic thought
understanding that certain symbols have meaning to them
egocentric
unable to see from other people's perspective, assume that all people feel the same way they do and that they like the same kinds of things
concrete operational stage
third stage of cognitive development - from 7 to 11 years of age - use of logical thought increases dramatically, and children develop a understanding of conservation
conservation
understanding that when the appearance of an object changes, it does not necessarily change the amount/volume of the object
Classic Piaget Conservation
three containers, A, B, and C were placed in front of children (2 of the same size and 1 tall and skinny) - when liquid from B poured to C, children in the preoperational stage thought C had more because it was filled up higher, but those who achieved understanding of conservation could understand that it was the same - other than the conservation of liquid, there is the conservation of matter
formal operational stage
final stage of cognitive development - 11 years and up - children can understand abstract principles like honor and loyalty and hypothetical possibilities and are less egocentric
In regards to Piaget's theory, research has found that _
children actually pass through stages more quickly
Lev Vygorsky
emphasized the role that culture and social environment have on cognitive development through internalization
internalization
the act of mirroring our cultures habits or the mind
Social and emotional development begins _
before birth
temperament
aspects of personality present at birth, presumed to be inherited behavior traits
