APES: Earth Systems, Biogeochemical Cycles, and Sustainable Mining

Atom

Smallest unit of matter (e.g., hydrogen atom).

Proton

Positively charged particle in the nucleus (1 amu).

Neutron

Neutral particle in the nucleus (1 amu).

Electron

Negatively charged particle outside nucleus (tiny mass).

Nucleus

Center of atom holding protons and neutrons.

Ion

Atom with a charge from gaining/losing electrons (e.g., Na⁺, Cl⁻).

Isotope

Atom with different numbers of neutrons (e.g., Carbon-12 vs Carbon-14).

Radioactive Isotope

Unstable isotope that emits radiation (e.g., Uranium-238).

Half-life

Time for half the atoms to decay (e.g., C-14 = 5,730 years).

Crust

Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron (e.g., quartz = SiO₂).

Oceans

Oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sodium (e.g., salt = NaCl).

Atmosphere

Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), CO₂ (<1%).

Organisms

Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen (e.g., DNA, proteins).

Carbohydrates

Energy storage and structure (e.g., glucose, cellulose).

Proteins

Made of amino acids; form enzymes/muscles (e.g., hemoglobin).

Lipids

Fats, oils, and waxes; long-term energy storage (e.g., phospholipid membranes).

Nucleic Acids

Store genetic information (DNA, RNA).

pH

Scale 0-14 (acid → base).

Potential Energy

Stored (e.g., water behind a dam).

Kinetic Energy

Motion (e.g., falling water turning a turbine).

Chemical Energy

Stored in bonds (e.g., glucose).

Mechanical Energy

Moving parts (e.g., windmill blades).

Nuclear Energy

Released in reactions (e.g., nuclear power plants).

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed (e.g., photosynthesis stores light energy as sugar).

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Energy conversions increase disorder (entropy); some energy is lost as heat.

Photosynthesis

Converts light → chemical energy.

Cellular Respiration

Converts sugar → usable energy (ATP).

Chemosynthesis

Uses chemical energy (no sunlight).

Core

Iron & nickel (inner solid, outer liquid).

Mantle

Hot, dense rock; convection drives plate motion.

Plate Tectonics

Movement of lithospheric plates.

Divergent Boundary

Plates separate → new crust forms (Mid-Atlantic Ridge).

Convergent Boundary

Plates collide → trenches/mountains (Andes, Himalayas, Japan).

Convergent

Plates collide → trenches/mountains (Andes, Himalayas, Japan).

Transform

Plates slide → earthquakes (San Andreas Fault).

Subduction Zone

Ocean plate sinks under continental → volcanoes (Ring of Fire).

Hotspot

Stationary magma plume → island chain (Hawaii).

Igneous

From magma/lava (e.g., granite, basalt).

Sedimentary

Compressed sediments (e.g., sandstone, shale).

Metamorphic

Heat & pressure (e.g., marble, slate).

Rock Cycle

Melting, cooling, weathering, compaction, metamorphism.

Anthropocene

Human-dominated era.

Natural Hazards & Human Impact

Urbanization increases flood risk; deforestation → landslides; drilling → earthquakes.

Hypoxia

Low O₂ → fish/shellfish die.

Chesapeake Bay Case

Cause: Nitrogen & phosphorus runoff from farms and wastewater.

Earth's Spheres

Lithosphere: Rock (mountains, crust). Hydrosphere: Water (rivers, oceans). Atmosphere: Air (N₂, O₂, CO₂). Biosphere: All living things.

Negative Feedback

Stabilizes (predator-prey balance, body temperature).

Positive Feedback

Amplifies (ice melt → more heat absorption → more melting).

Eutrophication

Cause: Fertilizer runoff, wastewater. Process: Nutrients ↑ → algae bloom → decomposition → O₂ drop → dead zone. Result: Loss of aquatic life.

Primary Production

Biomass made by producers.

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

Total solar energy captured.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

GPP − respiration (energy available to consumers).

Secondary Production

Consumer biomass (e.g., fish or herbivores).

Productivity

Measured as energy/area/time (e.g., kcal/m²/yr).

Ecotone

Transitional boundary (e.g., forest-grassland edge).

Wildlife Corridor

Connects habitats (e.g., land bridges for mountain lions).

Pool/Reservoir

Storage (e.g., ocean, atmosphere).

Flux

Rate of flow (e.g., precipitation).

Source

Releases material (e.g., volcano → CO₂).

Sink

Absorbs material (e.g., forest → CO₂).

Hydrologic Cycle

Steps: Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Runoff → Infiltration.

Aquifers

Underground water storage (e.g., Ogallala Aquifer).

Carbon Cycle

Photosynthesis: CO₂ → glucose (plants). Respiration: Glucose → CO₂ (animals).

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen Fixation: N₂ → NH₃/NH₄⁺ (lightning or bacteria).

Denitrification

NO₃⁻ → N₂ (bacteria return it to atmosphere).

Human Impact on Eutrophication

Fertilizer use → eutrophication.

Example of Rhizobium

Rhizobium bacteria in legume roots.

Phosphorus Cycle

No gas phase.

Steps of Phosphorus Cycle

Weathering rocks → phosphate → plants → animals → decomposition → sedimentation.

Human Impact on Algal Blooms

Fertilizer runoff → algal blooms.

Example of Algal Bloom

Lake Erie algal bloom (2011).

Rock

Solid mix of minerals (e.g., granite = quartz + feldspar).

Mineral

Pure substance with crystalline structure (e.g., halite, gold).

Smelting

Heating ore to extract metal (e.g., iron → steel).

Alloy

Mixture of metals (e.g., brass = copper + zinc).

Overburden

Soil/rock removed before mining.

Acid Mine Drainage

Sulfides + water + air → sulfuric acid (e.g., PA orange streams).

Strip Mining

Removes surface layers (overburden).

Subsurface Mining

Deep tunnels for metals.

Open-Pit Mining

Gigantic pits for dispersed minerals.

Mountaintop Removal

Blasting mountain tops.

Placer Mining

Running water separates heavy minerals.

Solution Mining

Injecting fluids to dissolve minerals.

Ocean Mining

Extract minerals from seafloor.

Environmental Effects of Mining

Erosion, deforestation, acid runoff, water pollution.

Social Effects of Mining

Dangerous jobs, displacement, ghost towns (e.g., Centralia, PA).

Health Effects of Mining

Lung disease, toxic water, flooding near valley fills.

Reclamation

Restoring land to pre-mining condition.

Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act

Requires restoration bonds.

General Mining Act (1872)

Allowed claim staking on federal land for $5/acre; no royalties or restoration required.

Mineral Leasing Act (1920)

Governs fossil fuels & industrial minerals; requires lease payments and royalties.

Recycling of Minerals

Reusing processed materials to reduce new mining.

Benefits of Recycling

Saves energy, reduces pollution, extends nonrenewable resources.

Sustainable Mineral Use Strategies

Recycling and reuse, substitution, efficiency in product design, environmental regulations and restoration.

Example of Energy Savings in Recycling

Recycled aluminum uses 95% less energy than new aluminum.