AP Psychology Module 9-15, Research Methods, and Neurotransmitters

Modules 9-15 + Research Methods + Neurotransmitters AP Psychology

biological psychologist

Psychologists who analyze the biological factors influencing behavior and mental processes.

neurons

Cells that are highly specialized to receive and transmit information from one part of the body to another.

dendrite

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

axon

A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the neuron cell body to other neurons, or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

Allows message to go quickly and accurately down the axon.

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

refractory period

The "recharging phase" when a neuron, after firing, cannot generate another action potential.

threshold

Level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a nerve or muscle fibre responds completely or not at all to a stimulus

synapse

A physical gap between two neurons that functions as the site of information transfer from one neuron to another.

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron.

reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

antagonist

A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the PNS and CNS

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting theCNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

part of PNS- controls the skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information. (you do the moving)

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

part of PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (like the knee tapping at the doctor)

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Lesion

Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of the brain tissue.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brains surface. These waves are measures by the electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT scan (computed tomography)

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. Also called a CAT scan.

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. These scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow, and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. These scans show brain function as well as its structure.

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

thalamus

The brains sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

reticular formation

A nerve network that travels through the brain system and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

limbic system

Neural system( including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

amygdala

Two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities( eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
"Glue cells"'
Worker bees
provide nutrients and insulating myelin
guide neural connections
mop up ions and neurotransmitters

Frontal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

Parietal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal Lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment; it helps us cope with novel situation, act in our long-term interests rather than short-term interests/pleasures, and promotes our survival by anticipating how we seem to others, and helping us read their minds.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

visual perception track

enables us "to think about the world", to recognize things, and to plan future actions

visual action track

guides our moment-to-moment movements.

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems.

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Enviornment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that makes up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

identical twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.

Heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. It may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

molecular behavior genetics

the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.

Epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

Evolutionary Psychology(ists)

study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Critics argue that evolutionary psychologists:

- start with an effect and work backwards to an explanation - do not recognize social and cultural influences - absolve people form taking responsibility for their sexual behavior

Behavior Genetics

focus on genetic and environmental roots of human diffferences

Charles Darwin

- principle of natural selection in behavior and mental processes - organisms' varied offspring compete for survival - certain biological and behavioral variations increase organisms' reproductive and survival chances in their particular environment - offspring that survive are more like to pass their genes - population characteristics change

Natural Selection and Adaptation

- genes and experience together wire the brain - adaptive flexibility in response to differing environments contributes to our fitness--ability to survive and reproduce

Mutations

random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Genetic Legacy

- genes of individuals not so disposed tended to be lost from the human gene pool - as enhancing genes continued to be selected, behavioral tendencies and thinking and learning capacities emerged that prepared out Stone Age ancestor to survive and reproduce

Genetic Differences in Sexuality

- men have stronger sex drives - men have lower threshold for perceiving a warm response as a sexual come-on

Natural Selection and Mating Preferences-

women approach sex more relational- - women usually nurses one infant at a time- - attracted to men who re mature, dominant, bold, long-term mating- men more recreational- - men can spread genes through other females- - look for healthy, fertile-appearing partners

Reflections on Nature and Nurture

- genes form us, as well as experiences forms us- gender roles shape us- biopsychosocial

Roger Sperry

- believed complex human brain give rise to something different: consciousness

Biopsychosocial

- individual development results form interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences - Bio: human genome; individual variation, prenatal environment, sex related genes... - Psychological: gene-environment interactions, effect of experience on neural networks, responses evoked by characteristics: gender and personality, beliefs, feelings... - Soc-Cul: parental, peer, cultural traditions

acetylcholine (ACh)

Released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles. Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, and memory.

Agonist for nicotine and caffeine.

Deficiency associated with Alzheimers Disease.

dopamine (DA)

Associated with voluntary movement, emotion, attention, and a key component in the reward pathway.

Excess - Schizophrenia / Hallucinations
Deficiency - Parkinson's Disease / tremors

Cocaine, meth, opiates all involve excess dopamine.

norepinephrine (NE)

Alertness, arousal, flight or fight response

Deficiency - Depression (can be treated with SNRIs, which block reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin)

Excess - Anxiety

serotonin

Involved in mood regulation, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Deficiency - Depression (Treated with SSRI's - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors; prevent serotonin from being reabsorbed in uptake, leaving more in synapses), eating disorders, OCD

Excess - Mania

LSD and ecstasy act on serotonin.

GABA

Main inhibitory neurotransmitter

Deficiency - Seizures, insomnia, tremors, anxiety

Alcohol is an agonist.

glutamate

Main excitatory neurotransmitter that creates links between neurons that form basis of learning and long-term memory.

Excess - Seizures & Migraines (Avoid foods with MSG - monosodium glutamate; overstimulate brain)

Alcohol is antagonist.

Endorphins

-Pain control & relief - Stress reduction
-Feelings of pleasure
-Natural opiates

With opiate addiction, body decreases natural supply of endorphins

Opioids are agonists for endorphins

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

hypothesis

a proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations