ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY EXAM 2 PREP

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levels of organization

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Dorsal plane

divides the body horizontally (dog standing in water)into dorsal and ventral sections.

Transverse plane

divides body into cranial and caudal ends

Bronchioles

found on either sides of the lungs which are located OUTSIDE the mediastinum

Carpus

“wrist area” located DISTAL to the elbow

Dermis

layer of skin located DEEP to the epidermis

Ion

Atom with 13 protons, 13 neutrons, and 10 electrons. Electric charge would be 3

visceral pleura

membrane lining the lungs

cholesterol

NOT and example of a carbohydrate

molecule

smallest unit of an element which retains the properties of the element

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen

4 elements that make up 95% of the body

solute

The substance which dissolves in water

enzymes

catalysts are proteins which are usually called this

diffusion

solutes moving from high to low concentration

Dogs stomach acid

Very acidic with a pH of approximately 2

Sodium potassium pump

NOT an example of diffusion

phospholipid bilayer of cell membrane

phospholipid tails of the outer layer face the phospholipid tails of the inner layer

ATP

Energy currency of the cell

mitochondria

organelle which uses oxygen for aerobic respiration

Cell wall

NOT a characteristic of all cells

Nucleus

Transcription of DNA to RNA occur in this area of a cell.

Telophase

(the final stage of cell division(mitosis or meiosis) where separated chromosomes reach the opposite ends of the cell. New nuclear envelopes reform around each set of chromosomes to create two new nuclei, and the chromosomes begin to decondense into their less visible, thread-like form.

Interphase

1. ( the phase when a cell grows, performs its normal functions, and duplicates its DNA in preparation for cell division.)

hypotonic solution

would cause hemolysis (swelling and bursting) of a cell. (hyp-O)

Transcription

1 strand of DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA, not both strands

epithelial tissue

tissue covering body surfaces, including skin, linings of intestines, lining of glands

Muscle tissue

not a type of connective tissue

tight junction

provides a seal between epithelial cells so there is no leakage between cells. common in bladder and digestive tract

pseudostratified ciliated columnar

type of epithelial cells found in trachea and bronchi of respiratory system. These epithelia are specialized to help “move” debris trapped in mucus out of respiratory passages

fibroblast

type of cell most common in connective tissue because it has the functions of producing the ground substance and producing the fibers of the extracellular matrix

reticular fiber

type of fiber of the extracellular matrix is thinner, branched and delicate; it is predominant in loose connective tissue and provides the framework of some organs such as the liver, spleen, lymph nodes and bone marrow

urinary system

A dog presents with a tumor of transitional epithelial cells called a Transitional Cell Carcinoma (TCC).  In which organ system is the TCC likely to be found?

endocrine gland

 type of gland releases hormones into surrounding fluid and bloodstream instead of into a duct or onto a surface

mucous

membrane lining organs that have connections to the outside environment

tendons

example of a dense regular connective tissue

nervous tissue

Which of the four tissue types controls work, and conveys information from one part of the body to another by sending electrical impulses?

holocrine gland

The entire cell bursts releasing the secretion as well as the cell debris

Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum (come, lets get sun burnt)

correct order of layers of epidermal strata from deepest to most superficial

around the eyes

where is the THINNEST skin found on a dog

False

Anal sacs and perianal glands are the same thing

sweat gland(eccrine gland)

appears like a wound up ball of yarn or spaghetti

erector pili muscle

looks like a small muscle attached to hair follicle, responsible for goosebumps

sebaceous gland/holocrine gland

looks like a pimple kinda, releases sebum, an oily waxy substance

medulla

center of a single hair

melanin

primary pigment of the skin

Foot pads

where is the only place in dogs where eccrine sweat glands are found

Thymine

In a DNA strand, adenine always bonds with:

Estrogen

NOT manufactured through the process of RNA transcription

Elastic cartilage

Ear pinnae primarily contain which type of cartilage?

Hydrogen and carbon

organic compounds are molecules that contain what types of elements?

osteon

What is the name for the structures in compact bone that resemble “tree trunks”? (each one has a “central canal” running through its center along its length.)

diaphysis

The shaft of a long bone is known as what?

Osteoclast

name for cell that breaks down bone

irregular bone

a thoracic vertebrae is an example of which type of bone?

hyaline cartilage

what type of cartilage makes up the articular cartilage

canon bone

metatarsal/metacarpal of digit III on a horse

extension

increase in the angle between two bones

pivot joint

the articulation between the axis and the atlas is what type of joint

endochondral ossification

begins with a cartilage model of the bone

fracture healing

an internal and external callus form

ligament

holds bone to bone, consists of interwoven collagenous fibers

hyoid apparatus

structure that supports the base of the tongue, pharynx, and larynx. sometimes considered part of the skull

Which of the following is a SIMILARITY between cardiac muscle cells (cardiac myocytes) and skeletal muscle cells (myofibers)?

Cardiac myocytes have a striated appearance

Which of the following connects the aortic arch to the pulmonary trunk?

ligamentum arteriosum

what is the first great vessel coming off the aortic arch in normal dogs and cats?

brachiocephalic trunk

Sarcomere

the basic contractile unit of a myofiber

fusiform (parallel)

the biceps brachii is an example of what type of muscle?

perimysium

name the fibrous connective tissue covering that surrounds each fascicle:

tendon

attaches muscle to bone

left ventricle

thickest walled heart chamber in a normal animal

FALSE

veins usually have a thicker tunica media than arteries due to more smooth muscle

capillaries

name the smallest blood vessels where gas exchange occurs between the blood and the interstitial fluid.

chordae tendinae

which of the following atrioventricular (AV) valve flaps from prolapsing?(going too far when they close)

cephalic vein

what is the name of the commonly used vein for venipuncture that courses along the craniomedial aspect of a dog’s forelimb?

Red blood cell aging

senescence

phagocytosis

a process in which a cell engulfs and destroys foreign particles, such as bacteria, dead cells, or debris

involves B cells differentiating into plasma cells that produce Y-shaped antibodies to neutralize free-floating antigens in the body fluids. Cellular immunity (cell-mediated immunity) involves T cells, specifically cytotoxic T cells, recognizing and destroying infected cells by binding to their surface antigens, often with the help of helper T cells and cytokine signaling

antibody production and cellular immunity

polymorphonuclear

having a nucleus with several lobes and a cytoplasm that contains granules, as in an eosinophil or basophil

mononuclear

having only 1 nucleus

pleomorphic

describes something that can occur in various distinct forms, shapes, or sizes

granulocytes

a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune system. They are characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, which contain enzymes and other substances involved in inflammation and defense. 

Agranulocytes

a white blood cell that lacks visible granules in its cytoplasm, in contrast to granulocytes, which have them. Key examples of agranulocytes include lymphocytes (T cells, B cells) and monocytes (which become macrophages)

110 days, 68 days, 150 days, and 160 days

blood cell lifespans of dogs, cats, horses/sheep, and cows respectively

senescence

process of red blood cell aging, enzyme activity decreases and the cell loses its deformity

Hemostasis

• Whenever there’s an insult/injury to a blood vessel, the following general things happen:

1. Reflex vasoconstriction

2. Platelet plug formation

3. Coagulation

RBC Destruction

• Intravascular hemolysis (10%) occurs freely in bloodstream, extravascular (90%) occurs in macrophages

• Hemoglobin broken down in macrophages (and liver)

- Fe goes back to bone marrow

-Heme becomes bilirubin which is ultimately excreted in feces or urine

-Hemoglobin amino acids go back to liver

Non specific defenses

• body’s defenses against pathogens in general, regardless of pathogen type

Specific defenses

• immunity; protects the body against very specific pathogens

phagocytosis

-neutrophils and monocytes are white blood cells that “eat” pathogens in the blood

-neutrophils usually attack bacteria

-monocytes usually attack other, larger pathogens

-monocytes only circulate for a few days in the blood, then they go into tissue and become macrophages

humoral immunity

• Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins

• They are protein molecules that bind to SPECIFIC antigens

• When antibodies bind to antigens, they can:

1. Allow phagocytes to recognize and destroy the antigens

2. Cause antigens to clump together, making a “bigger target” for phagocytes to recognize (transfusion reactions occur this way)

3. Cover toxic portions of antigens to make them harmless

4. Activate the “complement cascade”

antigen/antibody complex

When antibodies bind to antigens

B- cells

• So to review, when they encounter antigen:

1. B-cells give rise to plasma cells, which secrete antibodies

2. B-cells clone themselves to make memory B-cells to protect against future attack

3. B-cells release cytokines to recruit other immune cells

Perforin

How do cytotoxic T-cells destroy antigenic cells

Autocrine

• when a chemical messenger stimulates itself

Paracrine

• when a chemical messenger stimulates a cell in the immediate vicinity

Endocrine

• when a chemical messenger stimulates a cell at a distance