Observations

Observation

A research method where behaviour is watched and recorded systematically.

Naturalistic observation

Observation conducted in the participant’s normal environment without interference.

Strength of naturalistic observation

High ecological validity because behaviour is studied in real-life settings.

Limitation of naturalistic observation

Lack of control over variables reduces internal validity.

Controlled observation

Observation conducted in a structured or controlled environment.

Strength of controlled observation

Higher control over variables increases internal validity and reliability.

Limitation of controlled observation

Reduced ecological validity because behaviour may be unnatural.

Covert observation

Participants are unaware they are being observed.

Strength of covert observation

Reduces demand characteristics and ensures natural behaviour.

Limitation of covert observation

Ethical issues because participants cannot give informed consent.

Overt observation

Participants know they are being observed.

Strength of overt observation

More ethical because consent is obtained.

Limitation of overt observation

Higher risk of demand characteristics affecting behaviour.

Participant observation

Researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

Strength of participant observation

Richer, more detailed data because researcher gains insider perspective.

Limitation of participant observation

Risk of researcher bias or loss of objectivity.

Non-participant observation

Researcher observes from the outside without interacting.

Strength of non-participant observation

Researcher remains objective and avoids influencing behaviour.

Limitation of non-participant observation

Less depth or insight into group behaviour.

Structured observation

Uses a pre-defined coding system to record behaviours.

Strength of structured observation

Produces quantitative data, easy to analyse and compare.

Limitation of structured observation

May lack depth and miss important behaviours not in the coding system.

Unstructured observation

Observer writes down all relevant behaviour without a pre-defined system.

Strength of unstructured observation

Rich qualitative data with detailed descriptions.

Limitation of unstructured observation

Difficult to analyse and subject to observer bias.

Behavioural categories

Clear and objective definitions of behaviours to be recorded.

Operationalised behavioural categories

Behaviours must be specific, measurable and observable.

Poorly defined categories

Lead to low reliability and inconsistent recordings.

Event sampling

Recording every time a particular behaviour occurs.

Strength of event sampling

Useful for infrequent or unpredictable behaviours.

Limitation of event sampling

Frequent behaviours may overwhelm the observer and reduce accuracy.

Time sampling

Recording behaviour at fixed time intervals (e.g. every 30 seconds).

Strength of time sampling

Reduces observer workload and increases focus.

Limitation of time sampling

Important behaviours may be missed if they occur between intervals.

Inter-observer reliability

The extent to which two or more observers agree on their behavioural recordings.

Improving inter-observer reliability

Observers must use the same behavioural categories and compare results.

High inter-observer reliability

Indicates that the coding system produces consistent results.

Observer bias

When the observer’s expectations influence their interpretation of behaviour.

Reducing observer bias

Use multiple observers and standardised behavioural categories.

Observer fatigue

A decline in recording accuracy over time due to tiredness.

Controlled environment

Helps improve reliability but may reduce ecological validity.

Structured coding sheet

A pre-set grid used to record specific behaviours systematically.

Pilot observation

A small trial run to refine behavioural categories and correct issues.

Sampling frame in observation

The time period and frequency in which behaviours will be recorded.

Continuous observation

Recording all behaviour without breaks; time-consuming but detailed.

Ethical issues in covert observation

Lack of consent and inability to withdraw due to deception.

Ethical issues in participant observation

Researcher involvement may compromise confidentiality.

Public vs private behaviour

Covert observation is allowed ethically only in public settings.

Objective behavioural categories

Categories based on clear, agreed criteria to avoid interpretation differences.

Qualitative data in observations

Unstructured methods produce descriptive, non-numerical data.

Quantitative data in observations

Structured observations produce numerical, easy-to-analyse data.

Observer effect

Participants alter behaviour because they know they are being watched.

Reducing observer effect

Use covert or participant observation when ethical.

Strength of observation

Allows study of behaviour in real contexts, capturing natural actions.

Limitation of observation

Cannot establish cause and effect because no IV is manipulated.