Aice Sociology

Who is G.H. Mead and what did he contribute to sociology?

Mead introduced the idea of 'taking on the role of the other' through social interaction, first via imitative play, then understanding the 'generalized other.'

What is the difference between a symbol and an instinct?

Instinct is an automatic, preprogrammed response; a symbol is an object/gesture/word given meaning by individuals.

What is the interpretive phase?

The process of interpreting a stimulus before reacting, allowing for a choice of response.

Who is Herbert Blumer and what are his key principles?

He expanded Mead’s ideas: people act based on meanings, which arise from interactions and are interpreted.

What is labelling theory?

People are labelled based on societal definitions, affecting how others treat them and how they behave.

What did W.I. Thomas mean by 'definition of the situation'?

The meaning or label given to a situation affects how we act in it.

What is the Looking Glass Self (Cooley)?

We see ourselves as we think others see us: 'I am who I think you think I am.'

What is a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy?

When a label or belief leads someone to act in a way that confirms the label.

What is the labelling career?

(Becker & Lemert) The process from being labelled to possibly forming a master status around that label.

What is Goffman’s dramaturgical model?

Life as a stage – people manage impressions with 'front stage' (public) and 'back stage' (private) behaviors.

What is role distance?

The gap between our true self and the social roles we play.

What are the critiques of Symbolic Interactionism?

Doesn’t explain origin of labels, overlooks structural patterns, lacks explanatory power, overuses performance metaphor.

What is a social policy?

Government laws or actions aimed at solving social problems or improving society.

What is a social problem?

Behavior causing public concern and requiring collective response (e.g., crime, poverty).

What is a sociological problem (Worsley)?

Any pattern of behavior requiring sociological explanation.

What is the Functionalist view on social policy?

Policies are good for all; they promote order and cohesion through cautious changes (piecemeal engineering).

What is the New Right view on social policy?

The state should stay out of people’s lives; welfare weakens responsibility and independence.

What is the Marxist view on social policy?

Policies serve capitalism by legitimizing it, maintaining labor force, and preventing revolution.

What should Marxist sociologists do?

Expose the truth behind policies, raise class consciousness, and spark revolution.

What is the Feminist view on social policy?

Policies reinforce patriarchy (e.g., family/maternity policies). Liberal feminist ideas have influenced equal opportunity policies.

What is the Postmodernist view on social policy?

Little interest in policy, but support diversity and freedom of choice. Late modernists believe policy must adapt to globalization.

What is Interpretivism?

A sociological approach that focuses on understanding the meanings and motives behind human actions.

What methods do interpretivists prefer?

Qualitative methods like unstructured interviews, observations, and open-ended questionnaires.

What is the aim of Interpretivist research?

To understand the world empathetically by seeing it through the eyes of the people being studied.

What does 'walking in someone else’s shoes' refer to?

Taking an empathetic approach to understand others' meanings and behavior.

What is social construction?

The idea that reality is created through social interaction and varies by culture.

Name 3 key interpretivist sociologists.

Weber, Goffman, Mead.

What is Interactionism?

A type of interpretivism that allows for causal explanation but warns against imposing hypotheses before data collection (Grounded Theory – Glaser & Strauss).

What is Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology?

Reject causal explanations; believe society is built from shared meanings, not external forces.

What are social facts (Durkheim)?

Things like institutions, norms, and values that exist outside individuals and constrain them.

What is Positivism?

A scientific approach to sociology aiming for objectivity, causality, and general laws.

What kind of data do positivists prefer?

Quantitative data like structured interviews, closed questionnaires, and experiments.

What is causality in Positivism?

Studying the cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

What do positivists believe about objectivity?

Research should be free from the researcher’s values, like in natural sciences.

Who are two key positivist thinkers?

Durkheim and Comte.

What’s the main difference between Interpretivism and Positivism?

Interpretivism focuses on meaning and human experience (qualitative); Positivism focuses on facts and laws (quantitative).

How does access to participants affect research?

It influences method choice; for example, busy participants may prefer questionnaires over interviews.

How do the researcher's personal characteristics affect method choice?

Skills like communication or observation ability can determine which method is best.

How does subject matter influence method?

Sensitive topics may need careful methods (e.g., interviews over surveys for domestic violence).

How does sample size affect method choice?

Large samples suit surveys; small samples may need in-depth interviews.

How does time availability affect research method?

Time-consuming methods like observations may not be feasible under time pressure.

How does cost or funding influence research?

Budget limits may restrict method choice, favoring cheaper options like online questionnaires.

What is a research opportunity?

An unplanned chance to study something, which may require fast, flexible methods.

What is informed consent in sociological research?

Participants must be told the purpose, process, and data use of the research before agreeing to take part.

What is covert research?

Research conducted without participants knowing, often followed by post-research or pre-emptive consent.

What is pre-emptive consent?

Gaining consent from a similar group to ethically justify covert research.

What is deception in research?

Lying to participants about the research purpose to avoid invalid data from researcher effects.

Who are gatekeepers in research?

People who give access to participants (e.g., teachers, managers).

Why is confidentiality important in research?

Identifying features must be kept private and not published.

What does the principle of privacy mean in research?

Avoid asking about private matters unrelated to the study.

What kind of harm must be avoided in research?

Physical, psychological, and emotional harm.

Can researchers break the law during research?

No—researchers must follow legal guidelines at all times.

What is a hypothesis?

A proposed explanation made on limited evidence to be tested.

Define qualitative data.

Non-numerical data often in written or verbal form.

Define quantitative data.

Numerical data that can be statistically analyzed.

What is reliability in research?

The ability to replicate a study using the same methods.

What is validity in research?

How accurately a study measures what it claims to.

What is triangulation?

Using multiple research methods to increase validity.

What is a correlation?

A relationship between two variables (positive or negative).

What is an ethnography?

A detailed study of people's customs, habits, and cultures.

What is a pilot study?

A small-scale preliminary study to test feasibility.

What is a longitudinal study?

Research conducted over a long time period.

What is a case study?

An in-depth study of a single person, group, or event.

Who is associated with social facts?

Émile Durkheim.

What are social facts?

Norms, values, and institutions that constrain individuals.

What is value consensus?

Shared agreement on goals and values in society.

What is anomie?

A state of normlessness or lack of social regulation.

What is the organic analogy and who used it?

Parsons—society functions like the human body.

What are Parsons' 4 basic needs of society?

Goal Attainment, Adaption, Integration, Latency.

What are formal and informal social control?

Formal: CJS & police; Informal: peers & family.

Who criticized Parsons’ assumptions?

Robert K. Merton.

What is manifest vs latent function?

Manifest = intended; Latent = unintended consequences.

Give an example of manifest and latent function.

Rain dance: Manifest = cause rain; Latent = social cohesion.

What is patriarchy?

Male dominance over women.

What are the three waves of feminism?

1st - suffrage; 2nd - 1960s rights; 3rd - modern issues (#MeToo).

What is malestream?

Male-biased sociological perspectives.

What are Sylvia Walby’s 6 patriarchal structures?

State, Violence, Domestic Labour, Paid Work, Sexuality, Culture.

What is liberal feminism?

Seeks gender equality through reform.

What is radical feminism?

Believes in separation of sexes, revolution, political lesbianism.

What is Marxist feminism?

Sees capitalism as root of women's oppression.

What is intersectional feminism?

Focuses on how race, class, etc., intersect with gender oppression.

What is dual systems feminism?

Combines Marxist and radical—oppression by capitalism and patriarchy.

What is the micro approach?

Focus on individuals and small groups.

What is verstehen?

Empathy—understanding others’ perspectives.

What are Weber’s 4 types of action?

Instrumental Rational, Value Rational, Traditional, Affectual.

What are Weber’s two levels of explanation?

Cause (structural) and Meaning (subjective).

Give an example of Weber’s analysis of religion.

Protestant Work Ethic—Calvinist beliefs led to capitalist behavior.

What is a criticism of Weber's theory?

Too individualistic; meaning is hard to measure or share.