AP Psychology: Unit 3 (Developmental Psychology)

Developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Nature versus nurture

A theme in developmental psychology that examines the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.

Continuity and stages

A theme that explores whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a series of distinct stages.

Stability and change

A theme that investigates the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist or change throughout the lifespan.

Zygote

The fertilized egg, it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by a birth mother's heavy drinking during pregnancy.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Critical period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation, biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Sex

The biological classification based on physical characteristics, such as reproductive organs and chromosomes.

Gender

in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex

Intersex

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women (typically females have 2 X chromosomes; males have 1)

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome typically found only in males

Testosterone

the most important male sex hormone; stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty

Estrogens

sex hormones (such as estradiol) that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males

Primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive traits; such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Spermarche

the first ejaculation

Menarche

the first menstrual period

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women

Sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally (can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault)

Gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity

Social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Androgyny

blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

Transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-assigned sex

Sexuality

our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to another

Asexual

having no sexual attraction towards others

Social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Sexual orientation

according to the APA (2015), "a person's sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction."

Cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget's theory, stage (from birth to about 2 years) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational Stage

stage (from 2 to 6/7 years) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Egocentric

preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Theory of Mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states (feelings, perceptions, & thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict)

Concrete Operational Stage

stage (from about 7 to 11 years) at which a child can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events

Conservation

principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Formal Operational Stage

stage (normally beginning about 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Scaffold

in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Zone of proximal development

what a child can and can't do

Preconventional morality

self interest (punishment/reward) before age 9

Conventional morality

uphold laws/rules to gain social approval/maintain social order during early adolescence

Postconventional morality

actions reflect belief in basic rights and self defined ethical principles beyond adolescence

Terminal decline

the cognitive decline in the last few years of life

Life success

can grow from the ability to delay gratification (marshmallow experiment)

Language

our agreed upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning (may be a word or a part of a word)

Grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Semantics

set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

Syntax

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Noam Chomsky

the father of modern linguistics

Language acquisition device (LAD)

hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children rapidly learn/understand language

Universal grammar

humans' predisposition to understand the principles that govern grammar in all languages

Receptive language

the ability to understand language

Productive language

the ability to produce language

Babbling stage

about 4 mos, infant spontaneously utters various sounds (at first unrelated to the household language)

One-word stage

about age 1-2, child speaks mostly in single words

Two-word stage

about age 2, child speaks mostly two-word statements

Telegraphic speech

child speaks like a telegram - 'go car' - using mostly nouns and verbs

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

Broca's Area

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression

Linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Linguistic relativism

the idea that language influences the way we think

Ecological systems theory

A theory of the social environment's influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences.

Stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Ainsworth's Strange situation

A procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment, where a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while the caregiver leaves/returns, and the child's reactions are observed.

Secure attachment

Infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return.

Insecure attachment

Infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant attachment (resists closeness); or a disorganized attachment (no consistent behavior) when separated from/united with caregivers.

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Erikson's Basic trust

A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy, formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, 'Who Am I?'

Authoritarian parenting

Parents impose rules and expect obedience.

Permissive parenting

Parents submit to children's desires.

Authoritative parenting

Parents are both demanding and responsive, explaining reasons for rules.

Identity

Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Social identity

The 'we' aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to 'Who am I?' that comes from our group memberships.

Intimacy

The ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood according to Erikson's theory.

Emerging adulthood

A period from about 18 to the middle twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

Social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross's stages of coping

Stages of coping with death and dying, including Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance; not identical, predictable stages.