Comparative Politics Final Exam

Democracy

is aIn a democracy, policies are implemented by agents (representatives) who are chosen directly or indirectly by popular voting by citizens regime type for the exercise of political power. A regime is a set of rules, norms, or institutions that determine how the government is constituted, organized, and how decisions are made

In a democracy, policies are implemented by ______ who are chosen directly or indirectly by popular voting by citizens

agents (representatives)

Democracy relies on ______, ______, and ______

elections, competition, and accountability

Institutions

Institutions are a relatively enduring set of rules and organized practices that are embedded in structures of meaning and resources. They remain invariant despite turnover in personnel or individual preferences

Institutions perform several key roles: _____, _____, and _____

they create elements of order and predictability, enable and constrain political actors, and distribute and regulate access to power

Falsifiability

A key element of scientific knowledge is falsifiability—the possibility of testing a statement and showing that it could be wrong. Statements must be hypothetically incorrect or unproven, meaning they are testable through observation

Ontology and Epistemology:

Ontology concerns what reality is

Epistemology addresses what valid knowledge is and how we acquire it

Social vs. Natural Sciences

Comparative Political Science is largely a non-experimental social science; comparison serves as a substitute for experimentation, allowing for control (holding things constant) while examining observed differences

Confirmation vs. Falsification:

If the empirical implications are observed, the theory is corroborated, but not proven, as other explanations (Z) may exist. There is always more confidence in disconfirming (falsifying) a theory than confirming it

The Ladder of Abstraction (Sartori):

Concepts involve a trade-off between intension(attributes/precision) and extension (number of cases/generality). Moving up the ladder results in lower intension and greater extension

Dichotomous Conceptualization:

Treats characteristics as either present or absent (discrete), which is typical in classification and useful for studying democratic transitions

Gradual Conceptualization:

Views political properties (like power restrictions) as a matter of degree(continuous), often reflecting human cognition and providing less loss of information. This is better suited for studying the level of democracy

Small N

The Comparative Method (Small N)

This method involves comparing a small number of cases to explain outcomes. It relies on John Stuart Mill's methods

Method of Agreement and Method of Difference

Method of Agreement ("Most Different Systems"):

Compares cases that are widely different in features but share the same outcome (Y). This method only allows for finding sufficient causes

Method of Difference ("Most Similar Systems"):

Compares cases that are similar in many features but differ on the outcome (Y). This method allows for finding both necessary and sufficient causes

Necessary Condition (X for Y):

A circumstance in whose absence the event (Y) cannot occur. If Y happens, X must have been present

Sufficient Condition (X for Y):

A condition that will produce the outcome (Y). If X happens, Y will inevitably occur

Large N

The Statistical Method

This method involves the collection and analysis of quantitative data based on probability. It is probabilistic rather than deterministic, meaning it finds that rich countries are more likely to be democratic, rather than asserting that all rich countries must be democracies. Statistical analysis quantifies uncertainty and identifies patterns and regularities

Classical Categorization (Sartori):

Concepts are characterized by a hierarchical relationship, clear boundaries between categories, and shared properties. This approach is related to the Ladder of Abstraction, where there is a trade-off between intension (attributes) and extension (cases)

Radial Concept (Lakoff):

This approach is not hierarchical. It has one core concept that is "thick" (not abstract) and contains ALL the defining attributes. Subtypes are more general because they are missing some attributes, meaning increasing extension requires relaxing the core attributes, though not necessarily in a strictly hierarchical manner

Conceptual Approaches to Populism

1. A socio-cultural approach (Pierre Ostiguy).

2. A political-strategic approach (Kurt Weyland).

3. An ideational approach (Cas Mudde; Hawkins & Rovira Kaltwasser).

4. The Essex School (Ernesto Laclau & his students)

Common Elements of the Conceptual Approaches to Populism

• They center on a people–elite antagonism and claim to represent "the people".

• They allow for both left and right programmatic combinations.

• They emphasize leadership, rhetoric, and mobilization over detailed policy platforms

Conceptual Approaches to Populism they differ primarily on:

• Ontology: Style/identity (socio-cultural) vs. strategy (political-strategic) vs. ideology (ideational) vs. discursive logic (Essex).

• Unit of Analysis: Cultural codes/leader persona vs. organizational linkages vs. ideas/frames vs. discourse/subject formation

The Ideational Approach

views populism as a set of ideas. This approach is advantageous because it allows the concept to travel across the ideological spectrum (e.g., populist radical right, left-wing populists) and geographical regions (e.g., Latin American vs. European populism)

The ideational approach requires a minimal definition that

1. Contains only the attributes from one domain that are necessary and jointly sufficient to identify instances of the concept.

2. Allows for the study of features that appear with populism in different contexts but are not necessarily inherent to the concept

Populism Manicheanism

Manichean struggle between the will of the common people and an evil, conspiring elite"

Expert surveys, such as _____, _____, and _____, are used to measure populist ideas by collecting expert judgments on political parties

POPPA, PREPPS, and V-Party

Defining Culture

Culture is generally understood as “The way we do things around here,” encompassing traditions, habits, and patterns of behavior of a society

Arguments about Culture:

1. Primordialist Argument

2. Constructivist Argument

Primordialist Arguments:

Treat culture as objective, immutable, and inherited from ‘primordial’ times. This perspective implies that democracy is not for everyone, and some cultures may be incompatible with it.

Constructivist Arguments:

Treat culture as constructed or invented rather than inherited, meaning cultures are malleable and not fixed. This perspective holds that while a democratic culture is required for democracy, cultures are not impenetrable barriers to democratization

Define Political Culture

Political culture is defined as a coherent cluster of attitudes, values, and beliefs about politics, including feelings towards the political system. It represents the psychological dimension of political systems and refers to the aggregate level of "social identities" or politically relevant beliefs, norms, and values in a society

Components of Culture:

  ◦ Values: Prescriptive things considered morally right or wrong, often general, stable, and internalized beliefs.

    ◦ Beliefs: Things held to be true, often linked to an object and its attributes (e.g., "The judiciary system is fair").

    ◦ Attitudes: Specific, evaluative ideas or judgments about something, formed from underlying values and beliefs.

    ◦ Norms: Behavioral guidelines set and sanctioned by society

The core assumption is that cultural foundations determine the type of _______.

political system

Democracy is a demanding system that requires _______ and _______

civic competence and civic allegiance

Objective Competence:

Involves political knowledge and understanding of the process. Critics suggest demands for voter competence are overstated due to informational shortcuts

Subjective Competence:

The feeling that an individual understands the political process (internal political efficacy)

Civic Allegiance (“Loyalty”):

The affective mode of allegiance to institutions, actors, and processes. It requires valuing democracy as a system, entrusting the elite (delegation/representative government), and accepting representatives' decisions, challenging them through institutions rather than outside revolutionary changes

Dealigment Risk:

Stable party identification (party-voter alignment) is necessary; dealignment without realignment places democracy at risk

Measuring Civic Culture (Inglehart 1990):

Attitudes comprising a civic culture often include a high level of interpersonal trust, preference for gradual societal change, high support for democracy, high life satisfaction, and high levels of political discussion

Methodological Limitations of Surveys:

1. Difficulty Studying Emergence: Surveys are hard to conduct in dictatorships, and respondents may not reveal true preferences due to social desirability bias (overreporting good behavior).

2. Country Variation in Understanding: Individuals in different countries may interpret the same question differently; for example, defining democracy in terms of economic equality versus procedures, or differing understandings of "political efficacy"

Protestantism is associated with ______

Capitalism and subsequent economic development leading to democracy (Weber, 1904-1905)

Catholicism is viewed as ______

antithetical to democracy due to the emphasis on only one church and one truth, incompatible with democracy’s need to accept competing ideologies.(Lipset, Huntington) Hierarchy and distinction between clergy and laity, problematic for accepting egalitarian institutions

Confucianism is argued to be ______

undemocratic or anti-democratic. Its emphasis on respect for authority and communalism is seen as incompatible with Western values of individualism/liberalism (Huntington)

Islam arguments for _____

incompatibility include a perceived violent streak, inability to disassociate religious and political spheres, and viewing women as unequal (Huntington, Fish)

Critiques of Religious Theories:

Religions are not permanently incompatible with democracy. Democracy does not have to be secular, and doctrines can be read both compatibly and incompatibly with democracy. Growing evidence suggests cultures are invented, constructed, and malleable rather than primordial, and all religions have historically been compatible with a broad range of political institutions

Classic Modernization Theory:

This theory predicts that countries are more likely to (a) become and (b) remain democratic as they become richer.

While the link to remaining democratic (b) has stronger empirical evidence, the theory is criticized for having no strong causal mechanisms and relying on simple empirical correlation (Economic development → Democracy)

A Variant of Modernization Theory (Economic Structure):

Conditions for Representative Government:

Representative government is more likely to emerge and survive when rulers are dependent on a key segment of society (dependent state) consisting of a large number of people holding liquid or mobile assets (credible exit threat). This involves a shift from agriculture to manufacturing and services, creating assets difficult to count or tax

The Resource Curse (Autonomous State):

• Mechanism: Natural resources allow dictators to remain in power by providing revenue to buy support without raising taxes (no taxation – no accountability). This creates an autonomous state.

• Consequences: Resource abundance tends to correlate with poor governance, low economic development, civil wars, and dictatorships. Foreign aid can have a similar effect.

Phases of Modernization:

1. Industrialization Phase: Shifts society from agrarian to industrial, leading to a shift towards secular values. This phase is compatible with liberal democracy or industrial forms of authoritarianism.

2. Post-Industrialization Phase: Driven by existential security, leading to a shift towards emancipative values. This phase is compatible with liberal democracy

Traditional/Sacred versus Secular-Rational Values:

Measures the distance from authority(religious, state, national, and group norms).

    ◦ Secular Values Items: Distance from religious authority (e.g., frequency of practice), distance from state authority (e.g., confidence in army), distance from national authority (e.g., national pride), and distance from group norms (e.g., acceptability of taking bribes)

Patriarchical versus Emancipative (Self-Expression) Values:

Measures the shift from survival/obedience to self-expression values.

    ◦ Emancipative Values Items: Priority given to autonomy (e.g., child qualities like independence), priority given to democratic voice/participation (e.g., protecting free speech), priority given to gender equality (over patriarchy), and priority given to tolerance (over conformity, e.g., divorce, homosexuality)

Shift to Assertive/Critical Citizens:

The post-industrialization phase, characterized by existential security (basic needs covered), leads to a Silent Revolution where materialist worries shift to post-materialist worries (part of self-expression/emancipative values)

Emancipative values turn formerly allegiant citizens into _____

assertive/critical citizens

Assertive citizens ______ and are critical of institutionalized authority, leading to an increase in elite-challenging and self-expressive activities

keep elites in check

The Tectonic Tension-Release Model

This model provides a unified framework for regime change and stability.

• Actors: Elites and the masses.

• Mechanism: Incrementally changing emancipative values (demand for freedoms) build up a tension when confronted with the actual level of democracy (supply side of democracy)

 1. Undersupply of freedoms relative to mass demands leads to an ______.

    2. Oversupply of freedoms relative to mass demands leads to a ______

    3. Congruence (supply and demand match) results in ______

 1. Undersupply of freedoms relative to mass demands leads to an upward regime change(democratization).

    2. Oversupply of freedoms relative to mass demands leads to a downward regime change(autocratization).

    3. Congruence (supply and demand match) results in regime stability

Political parties are considered the _______. Modern democracy is often described as "party democracy"

core institution of democratic politics.

Functions of Political Parties:

Functions of Political Parties:

1. Structure the political world, coordinating actions within government and society.

2. Recruit and socialize the political elite.

3. Mobilize the masses.

4. Provide a link between the rulers and the ruled through identification, representation, interest aggregation, and channeling societal demands and conflicts. Representatives can act as delegates(representing the electorate's view) or trustees (using their own judgment)

Parties combine objectives, but they typically prioritize based on three goals:

1. Vote-seeking: Maximizing vote share, which often implies programmatic flexibility.

2. Office-seeking: Taking advantage of chances to enter government (e.g., forming coalitions).

3. Policy-seeking: Mobilizing voters based on specific policy content (programmatic linkages)

A party system refers to ________.

Party systems promote ________.

A party system refers to the constellation of parties and how they position themselves relative to one another, acting as the arena in which they compete.

Party systems promote stabilization and legitimacy and aid in the integration of groups like the newly enfranchised or immigrant societies.

Dimensions for Classification of Parties

• Number of parties: Includes one-party dominant, two-party, and multiparty systems. This is often refined using the Effective Number of Parties.

• Size of parties: Measured by membership, vote share, etc..

• Ideology and Polarization: Measures the ideological distance between parties.

  • Systems can be polarized (centrifugal, conflictive, often involving anti-system parties) or non-polarized (moderate, centripetal). Bipolar systems have two large opposing blocks or coalitions

Volatility:

Measures party system stability

Importance of a party:

Relates to the power of smaller parties, which may possess blackmail potential (veto power through confidence & supply) or coalition potential ("king makers"). Niche parties monopolize a small societal segment

ENEP

Effective Number of Electoral Parties: Based on parties that win votes (1/Σvi2​)

ENPP

Effective Number of Parliamentary Parties: Based on parties that win seats (1/Σsi2​)

Definition of a Political Cleavage:

For a division to be politically relevant, it must combine three elements: a Social-structural element (e.g., class, ethnicity), a Psychological element (collective identity and "activation"), and an Organizational element (mobilization and collective action).

Lipset and Rokkan’s Cleavage Theory (1967):

Party systems in Europe originated from the socio-economic and political cleavages present when parties were founded between the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

National Revolution Cleavges vs Industrial Revolution Cleavages

National Revolution Cleavages: Religious (Catholic vs. Protestant) and Center–periphery cleavages.

 Industrial Revolution Cleavages: Sectoral (Urban–rural, concerning trade vs. protectionism) and Class cleavages (Workers vs. capitalist/landowners, leading to socialist partie

The Freezing Hypothesis:

The Freezing Hypothesis: Following universal suffrage (around the 1920s), party systems allegedly became "frozen," continuing to reflect these historical cleavages despite their declining social relevance

New Cleavages (Post-Freezing): 4 types

New Cleavages (Post-Freezing): Social cleavages are not fixed. New cleavages have emerged:

    ◦ Post-materialist values (1970s) focused on the environment and gender equality.

    ◦ Education: A mass graduate class supporting green, liberal, and pro-EU parties, often being socially liberal and internationalist.

    ◦ White School Leavers: A core base for radical right parties, feeling threatened by cultural change and shifting away from traditional class politics toward cultural nationalism.

    ◦ Geography: Intensified urban versus rural (cosmopolitan versus declining hinterland) divides.

    ◦ These conflicts are increasingly analyzed along an Economic Axis and a Cultural Axis(Cosmopolitan/Universalist vs. Ethno-Nationalist/Religious Particularisms), generating phenomena like Left Populism and Radical Right Populism

Cross-cutting cleavages vs Cumulative cleavages

Cross-cutting cleavages involve uncorrelated attributes (equally distinctive identity categories)

Cumulative cleavages involve correlated attributes (identifiable groups on opposite sides).

A larger number of cross-cutting social cleavages leads to a larger number of parties in the system

Duverger's Laws:

• First Law: _____

• Second Law: _____

Duverger's Laws:

• First Law: Single-member district plurality (SMDP) systems encourage two-party systems.

• Second Law: Proportional representation (PR) electoral rules favor multi-party systems

Duverger’s Laws explained by two phenomenons:

1. The Mechanical Effect: Refers to how votes translate into seats. Disproportional electoral systems (like SMDP) punish small parties and reward large parties. The difference between a party’s vote share and its seat share is measured by Disproportionality, often calculated using the Gallagher LSQ index.

2. The Strategic (Psychological) Effect: Voters and elites anticipate the mechanical effect and adjust their behavior.

Strategic Voting:

Voters avoid a "wasted vote" by supporting their most preferred candidate who has a realistic chance of winning, rather than their true first choice

Strategic Entry:

Political elites are forced to decide whether to run under the label of their most preferred party or the party with the most realistic chance of winning. In disproportional systems, this discourages small parties from forming or attracting resources, encouraging mergers; in PR systems, even a small share of votes can win seats, making small parties viable "kingmakers"

Definition of volatility and its measurement

Volatility is the net change within the electoral party system resulting from individual vote transfers between elections. It serves as an indicator of political change and the degree of loyalty within the electorate. High volatility signifies high vote transfers and realignments, generally indicating system instability.

Measurement: The Pederson index measures volatility, calculating half the sum of the absolute differences in percentage change (21​∑Δp) of votes or seats for each party between elections.

Sources of Volatility:

• Party system age: Older, more institutionalized systems tend to have lower volatility. However, the rise of "critical, assertive citizens" may increase volatility through dealignment.

• Fragmentation: More parties in the system mean it is easier for voters to realign with another party.

• Institutional Changes: New constitutions or electoral systems can trigger volatility

Types of Electoral Systems (3 types)

1. Majoritarian Electoral System: The candidates or parties that receive the most votes are the winners.

2. Proportional Representation (PR) Electoral System: Aims to allocate a "fair share" of representation to each group of voters, typically utilizing quotas or divisors within multimember districts and party lists.

3. Mixed System: A blend of both majoritarian and proportional formulas, often structured in multiple electoral tiers, where majoritarian formulas are used in a lower tier and proportional formulas are used in a higher tier.

This relationship involves two key mechanisms: ______ and ______

Responsiveness (Input to Output) and Accountability(Output back to Input)

Institution	Majoritarian (Adversarial)	Consensus
Electoral system	__________	__________
Party system	___________	_________
Government type	___________	__________
Constitutionalism	___________	___________

Institution	Majoritarian (Adversarial)	Consensus
Electoral system	Majoritarian	Proportional
Party system	Two parties	Many parties
Government type	Single-party majority	Coalition/minority
Constitutionalism	Legislative supremacy constitution	Higher law constitution

Majoritarian Vision

Majoritarian Vision

• Focus: Favors responsiveness over representation, emphasizing mandates, alternation, and efficiency.

• Benefits (Promoted by Majoritarian Elections): Effectiveness (single-party executives, responsible parties), accountability (transparency of decision-making), and scrutiny (vigorous parliamentary debate, effective opposition).

• Risks: Dangers include permanent majorities, elective dictatorship, and a lack of checks.

• Philosophy: This vision sacrifices the accurate translation of votes or the presentation of a diverse set of preferences in order to create governing majorities, resulting in minorities having no influence on policies. It grants the right to vote but not necessarily the right to representation. This system leads to a Concentration of power

Consensus Vision

Consensus Vision

• Basis: Based on Proportional Representation (PR) elections.

• Benefits (Promoted by PR Elections): Pluralism (multiple parliamentary parties, diversity, coalition governments), consensus (bargaining, compromise), and dispersion of decision-making processes.

• Risks: Dangers include fragmentation, ineffective governance, and lack of accountability.

• Philosophy: This system leads to a Dispersion of power

Electoral democracy is fundamentally about giving consent to be _______

Electoral democracy is fundamentally about giving consent to be governed

Models of Representatives

Models of Representatives

1. Trustee Model (Representational Mandate): Representatives are free to use their own judgment and adjust decisions accordingly, allowing for flexibility and compromises. This model implies that Congruence (the match between representative and citizen positions) should be less tight, and requires less party discipline.

2. Delegate Model (Imperative Mandate): Representatives must follow the given mandate and are restricted by the will of their constituents, maintaining close contact with constituent opinion. This requires that Congruence should be closer.

3. Responsible Party Model: Parties act as mediators by aggregating voter opinions. Congruence is primarily with party voters, necessitating party discipline (representatives acting as delegates of their parties)

Congruence and Responsiveness

Congruence and Responsiveness

• Congruence is static, describing the alignment of positions (e.g., perfect congruence where Representative 'R' and Citizen 'C' match).

• Responsiveness is dynamic, describing the change in positions. This can occur when a representative responds to a shift in citizen preferences, or when elections serve the purpose of narrowing a gap (incongruent start).

• Congruence can be conceptualized as: One-to-One, Many-to-One (many citizens/one representative/one government position), or Many-to-Many relationships.

What is an open list?

voters vote for candidates

Foundational Concepts of Democracy and Competition

• Competition is considered to be at the heart of democracy.

• Democracy relies on the institutionalization of uncertainty, which involves three components:

  • Ex ante uncertainty: Anyone can win.

  • Ex post irreversibility: Losers do not attempt to reverse results.

  • Repeatability.

• The Issue-Congruence Paradigm (Powell) is a normative approach, often called the Responsible party/government model, which suggests that parties should have distinct platforms and implement them (issue correspondence, congruence)

Proximity Voting Models:

Proximity Voting Models: Voters choose party platforms that are close to their ideal point. This drives parties to choose points close to a large number of voters

Directional Voting Models:

Directional Voting Models: Voters choose parties "on their side" of the spectrum. This encourages parties to choose more extreme points to attract voters

The Median Voter Theorem (MVT) (Black 1948)

The MVT posits that the ideal point of the median voter will win against any alternative in a pair-wise, majority rule election, provided certain conditions hold

Conditions for MVT:

1. The number of voters is odd.

2. Voter preferences are single peaked over a single policy dimension.

3. Voters vote sincerely

Key MVT Terminology:

Key MVT Terminology:

• Ideal point: The most preferred outcome in one's preference ordering.

• Single-peaked preference ordering: A preference ordering characterized by a utility function that reaches a maximum at some point and slopes away from this on the other side.

• MVT applications are a reflection of the proximity model

Result (Convergence) of MVT:

Result (Convergence): The MVT leads to a process of CONVERGENCE. A proposal equal to the median voter’s ideal point is the only stable outcome. A potential risk of convergence is the danger of new contenders populating the vacated space

Economic Theory of Democracy (Downs 1957)

Uses a market analogy to explain viewing voters as rational actors in an elections

Voters are like consumers and parties are self-interested office seekers.

Convergence vs. Divergence: Parties maximize votes under different voter distributions. They converge toward the center if the distribution of voters is unimodal. Parties aiming for the middle space are often called "catch-all-parties". They diverge (or new entrants thrive) under bimodal or skewed distributions

The factors influencing why political parties change their policy positions include

Causal Factor	Evidence Level (Studied?)
Change in leadership	x
Change of dominant faction	x
Intra-Party Structure (e.g., hierarchical decision-making)	x
Previous electoral performance	x
Previous shifts by rival parties (“marker party model”)	x
Government vs. Opposition	x
Previous shift in public opinion	x
Global economic changes	x

The factors influencing why political parties change their policy positions include

Causal Factor	Evidence Level (Studied?)
Change in leadership	Moderate
Change of dominant faction	Minimal
Intra-Party Structure (e.g., hierarchical decision-making)	Minimal high
Previous electoral performance	Moderate - minimal
Previous shifts by rival parties (“marker party model”)	Minimal high
Government vs. Opposition	Minimal mixed - high
Previous shift in public opinion	Extensive high
Global economic changes	Minimal - moderate high

_______ refer to the weakening of links between social groups and parties

• ______ Occurs when modernization causes shifts in the strength of social groups, leading them to abandon the party they previously supported (e.g., impacting social-democratic and mainstream conservative parties

• ______ Happens when old conflicts are solved, or new issues emerge that divide traditional voter bases, causing voters to look for new parties, or when existing parties absorb new issues or engage in programmatic changes (convergence)

Dealignments refer to the weakening of links between social groups and parties

Structural dealignment: Occurs when modernization causes shifts in the strength of social groups, leading them to abandon the party they previously supported (e.g., impacting social-democratic and mainstream conservative parties

Behavioural dealignment: Happens when old conflicts are solved, or new issues emerge that divide traditional voter bases, causing voters to look for new parties, or when existing parties absorb new issues or engage in programmatic changes (convergence)