BIOL 205 EXAM 3

blood coagulation

• thickening of blood resulting in slower bleeding

  • some thought black people’s blood coagulates faster than white people’s blood

blood

• made up of plasma (liquid) → contains CO₂

  • 90% water

  • 7% proteins

    • buffers

    • hormones

    • immune system (ex. blood clotting)

  • ~2% salts, nutrients/wastes/gases

• located within blood vessels (closed circulatory system)

• blood rerouted to places needing more heat (homeostasis)

buffer

• keeps solution at pH of 7+

• safer way to hold CO₂ (ex. converting $1 bills to a $20)

  • enzymes can convert it back (ex. converting $20 to a $1 bills)

primary functions of blood

• pickup and delivery

• defense

• regulation

blood flow through body

heart → arteries → arterioles → capillaries → exchange of material through tissue fluid → venules → veins → heart

formed elements

• non-fluid part of blood

  • includes all blood cells

    • pieces of dead/dying RBCs

main types of formed elements (differences)

• erythrocytes: red blood cells (RBCs)

• leukocytes: white blood cells (WBCs)

• thrombocytes: platelets

erythrocytes

• red blood cells

  • most numerous

  • primary function → carry O₂

• small biconcave disks (more surface area and flexible)

• missing organelles (mature RBCs have no nucleus)

hemoglobin

• iron that contains protein → carries O₂

  • RBCs carry over a billion O₂ molecules (~20-30 trillion in the body)

  • iron and O₂ bind to make blood red (ex. rusted nail)

    • more O₂ = more red

CO₂ (waste) transport

• ~25% carried by globin (not heme binding site!)

• ~7% dissolved in plasma

• ~70% carried as bicarbonate in plasma

  • CO₂ + water (plasma/liquid) = acid → “ceviche”

  • CO₂ + water → carbonic acid → hydrogen/bicarbonate ion (buffer)

red blood cell cycle

• stem cell in bone marrow

• loses nucleus when mature and enters bloodstream

• cycle lasts ~120 days

• hemoglobin destroyed in liver/spleen

  • globin and iron get recycled

  • heme excreted (w/ feces) as bile

how does bruising happen?

capillaries break and blood leaks out into surrounding tissue

blood doping

• Erythropoietin (hormone → EPO) stimulates red blood cell production

  • normally insufficient oxygen content in blood/kidneys secretes EPO

• removes extra blood; blood w/ EPO taken out and reinjected before race

  • more oxygen-carrying capacity

  • difficult to test for b/c it’s your own blood

• Lance Armstrong controversy

anemia

• decreased RBC production/not enough hemoglobin in each RBC (low iron)

  • low iron reduces oxygen-carrying capacity (smaller RBCs)

• symptoms → tiredness, pale color, “going to pass out” feeling

  • most common in menstruating women and children (strong bitterness of iron-dense foods like spinach/kale); rare in men

two main blood groups

• antigens: surface proteins that help cells detect “self” from “non-self”

• antibodies: large Y-shaped proteins made by immune system (usually) to identify viruses, bacteria, etc.

  • ABO blood groups based on presence/absence (±) of A & B antigens

  • ***If you have one antigen, you make OPPOSITE antibodies (protection)

Rh factor

• protein on surface of RBCs determining if blood type is positive or negative

  • ex. if exposed to Rh+, THEN make anti-Rh+ antibodies

  • A+ can receive +/-, A- can only receive + ONCE before dying

how does hemolytic disease work?

• Rh- mother carries Rh+ fetus OR mother w/ O blood has fetus with A/B/AB

  • First time body doesn’t know how to make antibodies; second time antigens attack unfamiliar blood cells (can kill mom and 2nd baby)

• Rhogam injection used for prevention

what are type AB and O (respectively) known as?

• note: AB blood can receive A/B/AB blood

• O = universal donor

• AB = universal receiver

leukocyte

• white blood cells

  • larger w/ nucleus

  • made in bone marrow

  • released into blood

• squishes/squeezes between tissues

  • also found in tissue and lymphs

  • specific immune system functions

main types of WBCs

granulocytes and agranulocytes

granulocytes vs. agranulocytes

• granulocytes: cells w/ granules (end in phil)

• agranulocytes: cells w/ out granules (end in cytes)

leukemia (blood cancer)

• group of cancers usually beginning in bone marrow

  • increase of abnormal (cancerous) immature WBCs

  • ***most common in children

• symptoms → bleeding/bruising problems, tiredness, fever, increased risk of infection

• genetic and environmental

  • smoking, family history, T21 (Down Syndrome)

• treated w/ chemo, bone marrow transplants, radiation

infectious mononeucleosis (mono)

• herpes virus infection of lymphocytes

  • often spread through saliva (e.g. kissing, airplanes, classrooms, etc.)

  • enlarged/swollen lymphs → immune system cells try to fight virus

  • atypical lymphocytes in blood

• symptoms → fever, sore throat, etc. (can last for months!)

thrombocytes

• platelets → cell fragments

• makes 200 billion each day

• starts blood clotting process (w/ plasma proteins)

hemostasis

• blood clotting

  • blood vessels constrict

  • platelets start plug (w/ fibrin)

  • coagulation cascade → 12 steps

hemophilia

• genetic disorder decreasing body’s ability to make blood clots

  • easy bruising (bleeding lasts longer)

  • increased risk of bleeding inside joints/brain

• x-linked gene

  • carriers (female) may have mild symptoms; can give to XYs

  • can also pass on to offspring

• medications (ex. clotting factors from blood donors)

what makes up the cardiovascular system?

• heart (pump)

• blood vessels (transport)

• blood (connective tissue)

O₂-poor blood vs. O₂-rich blood

• O₂-poor blood (deoxygenated)

  • high in CO₂

  • usually in arteries

• O₂-rich blood (oxygenated)

  • low in CO₂

  • usually in veins

two types of circulation (one-way)

• pulmonary circulation

• systemic circulation

pulmonary circulation vs. systemic circulation

• pulmonary circulation

  • carries O₂-poor blood from heart to lungs

  • returns O₂-rich blood to heart

• systemic circulation

  • carries O₂-rich blood from lungs to body

  • returns O₂-poor blood to heart

artery vs. vein

• artery

  • BV carrying blood away from heart

  • more muscular and has thicker layers

  • higher blood pressure

• vein

  • BV carrying blood towards heart (valves)

  • less muscular and has thinner layers

  • ~70% blood

    • *veins closer to heart are BIGGER

capillary

• thinnest/smallest blood vessels

  • exchange site for nutrients/gases/waste

  • in lymphs too!

what happens when you lock your knees for extended periods of time?

stops blood flow to heart (risk of fainting)

primary function and location of blood vessels

• primary function → pump blood

• located underneath sternum

pericardium (sac)

• double-layered

• holds heart in place

• reduces friction

anatomy of heart

• four chambers

  • right atrium (upper left)

  • right ventricle (lower left)

  • left atrium (upper right)

  • left ventricle (lower right)

• two septa

  • atrial septum → separates atria

  • ventricular septum → separates ventricles

• four valves

  • tricuspid valve

  • pulmonary valve

  • bicuspid valve

  • aortic valve

chordae tendineae

• “heart strings”

• attached to papillary muscles

  • supports in keeping valves closed

“lub and dub”

• technical term for heartbeat

  • ventricular systole

  • ventricular diastole

ventricular systole vs. ventricular diastole

• ventricular systole (“lub”)

  • contraction of heart

    • blood leaves ventricles

    • blood enters pulmonary arteries + aorta

• ventricular diastole (“dub”)

  • relaxation of heart

    • blood leaves atrium

    • blood enters ventricles

electrical conduction system of heart (ECSH)

• unique cells w/ both muscular and nervous characteristics

  • SA (sinoatrial) node → natural pacemaker

  • AV (atrioventricular) node → slows down heart rate/electricity

  • Bundle of His

  • Bundle Branches

  • Purkinje Fibers

artificial pacemaker

• medical device using electrical impulses to regulate heartbeat

  • used if SA node too slow or there’s a block in ECSH

  • stimulates heart if beat is not detected

pulse

• rhythmic expansion/recoil of arterial wall b/c of blood entering blood vessel

  • normal pulse = 60-80 bpm

blood pressure (BP)

• pressure of blood against wall of blood vessel (artery)

  • average BP = 120/80

    • too high BP can damage artery walls

what is calculated to measure blood pressure?

systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure

systolic blood pressure vs. diastolic blood pressure

• systolic blood pressure: BP while ventricles are contracting

  • normal = 100-120

• diastolic blood pressure: BP while ventricles are relaxing

  • normal 69-80

hypertension

• persistent high blood pressure (>140/90)

  • increased risk of artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, kidney disease, etc.

  • affected by genetics and lifestyle (e.g. excess salt, excess body weight, smoking, alcohol, etc.)

    • can be treated w/ diet adjustments and medication

hypotension

• persistent low blood pressure

  • chest pain, shortness of breath, irregular heartbeat, seizures etc.

  • low blood volume, hormonal changes, widening of BVs, medicinal side effects, anemia, etc.

    • can be treated with medication

atherosclerosis

• thickening of artery wall (plaque buildup)

  • LDL (bad) cholesterol + dead WBCs + scarring

  • smooth muscle proliferation and restricts blood flow

  • leads to stroke, heart attack, aneurysm, etc.

aneurysm

• ballooning of blood vessel

  • atherosclerosis and hypertension weaken wall of BV

    • if BV bursts → death

heart attack (myocardial infarction)

• blood flow stops to part of heart

  • can occur due to lifestyle choices (e.g. smoking, no exercise, etc.)

  • damages heart muscle

  • women have completely different symptoms than men

    • 50% more likely to get misdiagnosed

heart failure vs. cardiac arrest

• heart failure: slow death

• cardiac arrest: quick death

stroke

• poor blood flow to brain resulting in death of neurons (fast)

  • minor → smoking, obesity, high blood cholesterol, T1/T2 diabetes

  • major → high BP

two main types of strokes

• ischemic: blockage leads to lack of blood flow

• hemorrhagic: breakage leads to bleeding

inequity in women’s health

• 1993 (cis/white) women were included in scientific research (b/c of periods)

  • everyone else had adverse reactions to drugs

  • ex. ambien drugs → sleepwalking/sleepeating women

• (cis) women live longer but have worse quality of life b/c of chronic illness

  • 80%; more likely to get autoimmune disorders

  • usually treated w/ therapy instead of pain medication

• more likely to live in poverty and rural areas (less access)

  • even worse for WOC

lymphatic system

• part of circulatory system

  • plays critical role in immune system

what is the lymphatic system made up of?

• lymph (fluid)

• lymph vessels

  • one-way system

  • valves

  • needs help

location and functions of lypmhatic system

• located all over body (nodes + vessels)

• primary function

  • absorb excess tissue fluid

  • defense against pathogens

• secondary function

  • absorbs fats from small intenstine

primary vs. secondary lymph organs

• primary LOs = where lymphocytes are born/mature

• secondary LOs = store/work

  • mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

    • in respirartory/genital tracts

lymph nodes

• filters lymphs along lymph vessel pathway

  • clusters (inguinal, axillary, cervical)

  • swells while fighting infection → increases number of cells