SS UIl Important Terms/Vocab

Yalta Conference

Meeting of the Big Three (Churchill, FDR, and Stalin) in February 1945, to discuss the post-war world. It would be the final meeting of the three due to changes in leadership. The agreements from the conference were for free elections in most of the territories formerly occupied by Axis powers, but much of this never came to be as Stalin used troops on the ground in liberated territories to enforce his desires. The USSR also agreed to join in the Pacific War in exchange for land concessions and the structure of the UN Security Council was agreed to.

Potsdam Conference

Meeting from July 17-August 2, 1945 of Allied leaders during WWII to discuss the end of the war in the Pacific and the future of Europe. President Truman represented the US and Stalin the USSR. Churchill was present until his government was voted out of office and was replaced by the new prime minister, Clement Atlee. At the conference, Truman would inform Stalin of the successful Trinity test, Stalin committed to attacking Japan, and the countries further solidified plans for reparations and occupation zones in Germany and Austria. Further Allied conferences were planned to help align the administration of post-war Europe, but they would fail to involve any real cooperation.

Morgenthau Plan

Original post-war Allied policy for Germany as articulated by Secretary of Treasury Henry Morgenthau in 1944. It sought to completely eliminate Germany’s war making capabilities by destroying its industrial base in the Ruhr Valley and possibly interning workers in labor camps. President Truman wanted a more moderate approach and by 1946, the Restatement of Policy on Germany by Secretary of State James Byrnes officially redirected Allied plans.

“Speech of Hope”

Address by Secretary of State James Byrnes on September 6, 1946, in Stuttgart that announced a realignment of US policy towards the rehabilitation of Germany. The UK and US had created a Bizone of their occupation areas the day before and the speech outlined support from the US for Germany to create its own government and work toward full-sovereighty and economic independence.

Bretton Woods Conference

Meeting in New Hampshire in July 1944 that created the structure for how the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD-later the World Bank) would stabilize global currencies and trade. These agreements would eventually set the stage for the US dollar to be the global reserve currency and rebuild and supercharge economies that received an influx of loans.

GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade that reduced tariffs in order to facilitate trade in the post-WWII global economy based on a lack of discriminatory policies resulting in all countries benefitting from negotiated tariff rates. Twenty-three counties agreed to the terms in 1947, and starting on January 1, 1948, world trade began to boom. GATT would be replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 with 125 nations and 90% of trade under its guidance.

Truman Doctrine

Policy announced by President Truman on March 12, 1947, that committed the US to aid countries that were threatened by communist revolutions. It was inspired by the situations in Greece and Turkey where communist insurgents were making gains and by the fact that the UK had announced it could no longer afford to support anti-communist efforts in the Mediterranean region.

Marshall Plan

Economic stimulus and recovery program sponsored by the US under the direction of Secretary of State George Marshall that lasted from 1948 to 1951. It gave supplies and subsidies to 17 European countries to recover from WWII and to stabilize them politically to help ensure democratic and mainly capitalist systems would endure past looming threats of destabilization that US leaders feared would promote communist regimes. $13 billion in aid was extended during the plan which was offered to Eastern Bloc nations, but was declined by order of Stalin.

containment policy

An approach to foreign policy by the US under the Truman administration inspired by George Kennan’s 1947 articles on the USSR. The Truman Doctrine was the start of putting these ideas into practice by supplying the anit-communist efforts in Greece and Turkey in order to keep communism from spreading in the Mediterranean.

Greek Civil War

Confrontation between EAM-ELAS (communist) forces and the EDES (nationalist) army after the withdrawal of German occupation forces in 1944. The UK helped end the conflict temporarily in 1945, but by 1946, it had restarted and the US was forced to intervene to help the EDES. The last communist resistance ended in 1949.

Iranian Crisis (1946)

Confrontation in Iran where the USSR refused to withdraw troops after the end of WWII. The Soviets tried to retain influence in the country by supporting rebels along their shared border. The US and UK had major influence over the oil in Iran and did not want Soviet interference. They protested USSR actions to the UN and after oil agreements between the Soviets and Iran were reached, troops began withdrawing on March 24, 1946. When the troops left, the US helped end the rebel activities, and Iran ended its oil agreements with the Soviet Union.

French Strikes of 1947

Series of post-war strikes that began at the Renault automobile factory in April against continuing production quotas and low pay that were sparked by a reduction in the bread ration. The French Communist Party joined the strike and the government responded by removing all FCP officials from their positions. The government pushed through a wage increase to get most workers to return, but the tumult convinced observers that the government and economy were under threat of falling to communism.

Italian Election of 1948

Initial parliamentary elections in the newly created Republic of Italy. The US, via the CIA, provided financial and material support to the campaign of the Christian Democrats and their allies to oppose the Communist Party’s candidates, who hoped to secure a plurality and control the government. The Communists and allies still garnered 31% of the vote despite the intense US-backed propaganda efforts, but the Catholic Church’s support (and anti-communist rhetoric) helped the CDP control the government with 48%.

Cominform

(aka Communist Information Bureau) International organization founded in 1947 that lasted until 1956. It was the heir to the pre-war Cominform and consisted of the communist organizations in Bulgaria, France, Italy, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the USSR. It was meant to spread communist ideology and propaganda abroad to help the movement spread worldwide. It was disbanded as part of the post-Stalin thaw.

Comecon

(aka Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) Economic aid organization started in 1949 to promote development in the Eastern bloc countries. It eventually spread to include other communist countries such as Mongolia and Cuba. It was a response to the Marshall Plan and sought to create more efficient trade amongst the countries that limited redundant production of materials that would increase competition. It was able to further integrate the socialist nations, but their diverse economies and a lack of cooperation made gains minimal.

Brussels Defense Pact

Treaty signed in 1948 by the UK, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg to cooperate in the military defense of their nations. It laid the foundation for the creation of NATO and increased overall European cooperation and integration.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

Defensive alliance established in 1949 to create military stability and cooperation in Europe and North America. It currently has 32 member states after starting with 12 founding members (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the UK, and the US). The key agreement is Article V of the founding document that calls for mutual defense if one member is attacked. It has only been invoked once (after the 2001 attacks in the US). The alliance was conceived to help Western Europe defend against USSR forces which held a sizable advantage in conventional forces even when compared to the collective strength of NATO.

CENTO

(Central Treaty Organization, aka Baghdad Pact) Agreement between Turkey, Iran, the UK, Iraq, and Pakistan signed in 1955 that was originally known as the Middle East Treaty organization. The group was to provide mutual defense against possible Soviet aggression in the region. The US became an associate member after Iraq withdrew in 1959. It lasted in some form until Iran withdrew after the Revolution of 1979.

Balkan Pact (1953)

(aka the Pact of Ankara, Balkan Entente, and the Balkan Union) Agreement between Greece, Turkey, and Yugoslavia to coordinate military actions of a defensive nature. It was seen as a deterrent to Soviet aggression in the region.

Austrian neutrality (1955)

The USSR agreed to end post-war occupation along with the Western Allies in the State Treaty of May 15, 1955. It formally reestablished the Austrian republic with pre-1938 sovereignty and borders. Anschluss and restoration of the Habsburgs was forbidden and on October 26th, the day after all occupation forces withdrew a constitutional law of perpetual neutrality was passed.

Open Skies proposal

Policy presented by President Eisenhower at the 1955 Geneva summit with fellow Allied occupational powers. The plan was discussed after talks on German reunification fell through and Eisenhower sought to salvage a benefit from the discussions. It called for the US and USSR to share information about their military base locations and allow surveillance of the location to monitor arms control agreements. The USSR rejected the plan as a form of espionage.

Harmel Report (aka Report of the Council on the Future Tasks of the Alliance)

Outlining of policy in 1967, that transformed NATOs outlook to align with a dual-track set of goals via détente and deterrence. It was named for Belgian Foreign Minister, Pierre Harmel.

Berlin Blockade

Soviet blockade of Western supplies into West Berlin starting on June 25, 1948 after the introduction of the deutsche mark in the newly unified Western Allied occupation zones of the capital. The next day, US and UK airships began supplying the city until the blockade was lifted without comment by the USSR on May 12, 1949. It was a crucial early face-off in the Cold War putting the importance of Berlin front and center.

Checkpoint Charlie/standoff 1961

(aka the Berlin Crisis) A confrontation between US and USSR occupation forces in Berlin at the main crossing point between their respective sectors of control. Under their post-war agreement, US military personnel could pass into any zone, but two months after the creation of the Berlin Wall, East German and Soviet officials began trying to limit such travel. This led to a show of force by the US under General Clay where 10 US Army tanks faced off with 10 Soviet tanks on October 27th until the next day when the Soviet tanks retreated approximately 5 meters back. Their move was matched by the US forces and eventually both sides moved away from the checkpoint.

Berlin Wall

Barrier built in August of 1961 that surrounded all of West Berlin to isolate it from East Germany. Millions of East Germans had left their country through West Berlin leading to severe labor shortages, especially amongst skilled and educated workers. The wall started as barbed wire and quickly grew into a series of walls and barriers manned by armed guards that killed anyone trying to cross illegally. The wall was opened on November 9, 1989 and was soon torn down symbolizing the fall of the authoritarian government in East Germany.

East Berlin Revolt (1953)

Mass protests against harsh government work and production quotas without wage increases. Discontent bubbled over in June just months after the death of Stalin when some citizens expected reform, but were met by even more draconian measures from the Ulbricht regime instead. Strikes turned into a popular movement against the government. Soviet troops in Berlin responded and quelled the resistance to save the GDR’s government.

Basic Treaty (1972)

An agreement between West and East Germany that established recognition and economic trade between the two countries. It was an outgrowth of the Ostpolitik of Willy Brandt and cleared a path for both nations to gain admittance to the UN the following year.

Hallstein Doctrine

The policy of West Germany to refuse diplomatic relations with any other nation that officially recognized East Germany (save for the USSR). It lasted from 1955-1970, and was named for diplomat Walter Hallstein. It ended with a switch to Ostpolitik.

Ostpolitik

(Eastern Policy) Foreign policy of West Germany beginning under Willy Brandt in the late 1960s and early 70s. It led to recognition of East Germany and developed economic and political relations with the USSR.

Moscow Treaty (1970)

Agreement between the USSR and West Germany that was signed in Moscow on August 12, 1970. It was brought into being through Willy Brandt’s Ostpoltik efforts and helped bring about the Helsinki Accords. It agreed to end the Hollstein doctrine by recognizing the GDR and recognized the current boundaries of Germany that had resulted from WWII.

German reunification/Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

(aka Two Plus Four Agreement) Agreement that reunified Germany in October 1990. The parties involved were East and West Germany along with the WWII Allies (France, the UK, US, and USSR). It ended the post-war occupation of Germany and finalized the border changes between Germany, Poland, and the USSR bringing a final conclusion to the interim situations created by WWII.

Korean War

Conflict that started with the invasion of South Korea (ROK) by North Korean forces (DPRK) on June 25, 1950. The fighting lasted until July 27, 1953, though a technical state of war still exists as no formal peace treaty was ever signed by the two parties. The UN became involved led by the US (due to a Soviet boycott of the Security Council) and after initially falling back to the Pusan perimeter the US, under Douglas MacArthur, made a dramatic landing at Inchon to force the North Koreans back. The PRC entered the conflict as UN forces approached their border at the Yalu River. The war devolved into a stalemate near the original line of demarcation at the 38th parallel and a cease fire kept the areas under military control at the time as the de facto borders for North and South Korea.

PRC/ROC

The Republic of China (ROC) was established in 1912 under Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalist party. His successor, Chiang Kai-shek, largely unified the country until the 1927 civil war with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) broke out. Shortly after WWII, the CCP gained control and established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. The KMT retreated to Taiwan and maintained the majority of international recognition as the sanctioned government of China as the ROC until 1971, when the PRC gained control of China's seat on the UN Security Council. The ROC dropped its claim to representing the whole of China in the 1990s, but still claims independence which the PRC refutes.

Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance (1950)

Agreement between the USSR and the PRC signed on February 14th that sent technical and economic assistance to China which helped them support Korean War efforts and mobilize their economy after the end of the long civil war. It also began discussions of military cooperation in order to support the new communist government and help diminish the chances of a US invasion to support the claims of the exiled ROC. The treaty would technically remain in effect until 1979, but after de-Stalinization efforts began in the USSR, the relations between the two powers became strained and then adversarial.

Sino-Soviet Border skirmishes (1969)

Conflict beginning in March of 1969 when PLA troops clashed with the Soviet Army in Manchuria on islands in the Ussuri River. Two larger battles ensued in the border river and troops began to mass. The USSR began considering nuclear options and China placed their nuclear forces on alert. Aleksei Kosygin met with Zhou Enlai in September in Beijing to deescalate the situation. The poor relations between the countries that had been deteriorating for over a decade did not greatly improve, but the skirmishes stopped.

Taiwan Straits Crisis (First and Second)

Confrontations between the PRC and the ROC on the islands in the Taiwan Strait that both governments claimed sovereignty over. The first crisis occurred in 1954, when the PRC began shelling Quemoy/Jinmen, Matsu, and Dachen islands. These islands were claimed by the ROC, who saw them as vital to their defense. The threat by the PRC resulted in the Eisenhower administration signing the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty in December. Congress gave the president the ability to defend the islands in January and by April the PRC ended its assault. The second crisis took place in 1958, when the PRC shelled Jinmen and Matsu while the US was involved in the Lebanon Crisis. The US resupplied the threatened ROC garrisons and an unspoken agreement of shelling on a predicted schedule fell into place that lasted until normalized US and PRC relations in 1979.

Great Leap Forward

Effort by the Chinese Communist Party from 1958 to 1960 to industrialize and empower the economy of the country. Chairman Mao did not believe the Soviet system was effective for China and the country would need to rely on increased output from its abundant labor supply to jumpstart industrialization and create agricultural surpluses. Collectivized farms and worker communes were created, but were badly managed with often counterproductive goals and directives. Twenty million people are estimated to have died from starvation due to the inefficient programs that created a disastrous lack of food exacerbated by natural disasters and crop failures.

Cultural Revolution

Initiative under Mao Zedong from 1966 to 1976, to focus more of China’s cultural energy on his vision of communism and the national spirit. He wanted people to recommit to a single-minded focus on the communist revolution which had the effect of inspiring widespread attacks by mobilized youth groups called the Red Guards on anyone seen as elitist, intellectual, or unorthodox.

Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989)

The violent end to a months-long student-led protest for democratic reforms in Beijing. The protests were linked to several efforts throughout the country that kicked off after the death of former general secretary and liberal, Hu Yaobang. The economic reforms of the 1980s in the PRC and the political reforms in socialist nations in Europe inspired students to demand more political freedoms. A visit by the reform-minded Gorbachev to Beijing further emboldened the protests, but soon after the Soviet premier left the military was called out to completely dismantle the protest site, killing hundreds at a minimum. The details of the event have since been suppressed in China.

League for the Independence of Vietnam/Viet Minh

Insurgency movement formed in China in 1941, during WWII by Ho Chi Minh. It fought against Japanese occupation and declared independence for Vietnam in 1945. The French attempted to retake the colony from the Viet Minh starting in 1946. The Viet Minh transformed into the Vietnamese National Popular Front (Lien Viet) by the end of the war and the Communist Party became the leading political force in the country with most of its leadership coming from the Viet Minh.

Dien Bien Phu (1954)

Final major battle of the First Indochina War between Viet Minh and French colonial forces. The mountainous fortified location was supposed to supply the French with a base for last minute gains before peace negotiations, but resulted in a decisive defeat instead. The base was surrounded, cut-off, and overrun by May 7, 1954.

Geneva Accords (1954)

Agreements issued at the Geneva Convention on July 21, 1954, concerning the future of the former French colony of Indochina. It called for a ceasefire and division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel. It also called for elections in Laos and Cambodia the following year and Vietnamese elections before July 1956 to unify the country under a single government. The agreements were non-binding and though followed in part, the situation quickly devolved into new conflicts. Diem of the South refused to sign the agreement and refused to allow the reunification elections it called for.

Vietnam War (aka the American War)

Conflict between North and South Vietnam from 1954-1975, that followed the removal of French colonial forces in 1954. The North would be aided by the USSR and PRC and by the Viet Cong in South Vietnam. The South would be aided by the US until its withdrawal in 1973. The South would be overrun by the North in 1975, and the war would end with the unification of the country under communist rule.

National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam/Viet Cong (Liberation Army of South Vietnam)

A combination of regular and irregular combatants in South Vietnam operating in general coordination with the North Vietnamese communist government. Viet Cong comes from a term for Vietnamese communist and members were often referred to as VC by US troops.

Ho Chi Minh Trail

System of transportation routes through the dense jungle of Cambodia and Laos that supplied North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces during the Vietnam War. It began use in 1959 and by 1974, it included highly-developed supply stations and support facilities.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident/Resolution

A naval confrontation off the coast of northern Vietnam on August 2, 1964, where North Vietnamese ships were reported to have launched an unprovoked attack on the USS Maddox. A subsequent attack was reported on August 4th that included the USS Turner Joy. The second attack was never confirmed to actually take place, but President Johnson used the events the next day to urge Congress to pass a resolution that gave him the ability to take “all necessary measures” to prevent further attacks. It would lead to a dramatic increase in US involvement in Vietnam.

Operation Rolling Thunder

Bombing campaign by the US military from March 1965 until October 1968 that targeted sites in North Vietnam. President Johnson approved the operation to weaken the North Vietnamese ability to supply their southern forces and to try and destabilize the economy and force negotiations. The bombings were gradually increased every year until 1967 when some leaders, such as Secretary of Defense McNamara, began to argue that the operation was not effective. This was despite the tonnage of explosives dropped on North Vietnam being more than all tonnage used by the US during WWII. The significant loss of bombers and fighters involved in the operation led to an overhaul of the Air Force's strategic approach to air combat.

Tet Offensive

Coordinated attacks, named for the New Years holiday, by the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong on January 31, 1968. They took place in South Vietnamese cities in an effort to inspire a general uprising against the government. Though the effort failed and could be considered a major defeat, the ability of the North to mobilize tens of thousands of troops deep inside the South with little awareness of the US military shook the confidence of the US and was seen as a major embarrassment for the military and Johnson administration. Almost 10,000 civilians were killed in the South and over 2,600 troops died. The North was reported to have suffered as many as 60,000 troops lost.

My Lai Massacre (aka Pinkville Massacre)

Event that resulted in the murder of up to 500 unarmed Vietnamese in the village of My Lai on March 16, 1968, by US soldiers in Charlie Company under the command of Capt. Ernest Medina. Some of the worst actions were committed under 1st Platoon leader William Calley that rounded up civilians, including children, to be executed. Some villagers were saved by US helicopters that intervened to block further attacks. The events were covered up despite a report of the attack, but a fellow soldier gathered evidence and sent his findings to members of Congress and the Defense Department. Medina was court-martialed, but acquitted and Calley was charged with the murder of 109 civilians and sentenced to life in prison for 22 counts. President Nixon decided to commute his sentence to house arrest and it was eventually reduced to a three-year term. Those charged in the cover-up were also subsequently acquitted. The events surrounding the massacre increased protests around the war and furthered the perceived credibility gap concerning official information about US activities in Vietnam.

Pentagon Papers

(aka US Decision-Making in Vietnam, 1945-68) Documents that outlined US activity in Vietnam and Southeast Asia. They were created by order of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. The New York Times received thousands of pages of this information from Daniel Ellsberg who had helped create the documents. The Times began publishing them on June 13, 1971. The Times and the Washington Post fought an order by the Department of Justice to cease publication and the Supreme Court agreed they had the right to do so. The information further eroded public confidence in the government’s credibility and Nixon’s response led to parts of the eventual Watergate scandal.

Vietnamization

Policy announced by President Nixon in 1969, that sought to gradually make South Vietnam more responsible for military activities in their country. It would lead to the eventual withdrawal of active US forces in a cease-fire signed in January of 1973.

Paris Peace Accords (1973)

Agreement signed on January 27, 1973 that committed the US to cease involvement in Vietnam. It was signed by the North, South, US, and Viet Cong, but most of the provisions for a ceasefire were broken very quickly after the agreement.

US Invasion of Cambodia (1970)

US Army troops moved into neutral Cambodia from positions in South Vietnam on April 28, 1970. This was part of an effort to cut off the Ho Chi Minh trail used by the North Vietnamese to supply NVA and Viet Cong fighters. The incursion came a month after a coup in Cambodia and would last until late July. Protests sprang up in the US and Congress began to seek new ways to limit President Nixon’s ability to unilaterally use military force.

Cambodian Coup (1970)

Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed by a vote of the Cambodian National Assembly on March 18th. Prime Minister Lon Nol helped orchestrate the coup, became the country’s leader, and with US support tried to ban North Vietnamese troops from his country. This would lead to the Cambodian Civil War and lead to the Khmer Rouge controlling the country by 1975.

Khmer Rouge

Regime formed from the Communist Party of Kampuchea in Cambodia that controlled the country from 1975 to 1979 after emerging victorious from the civil war started after the 1970 coup. It was led by Pol Pot and killed millions of people in the country that were deemed a threat to the government. The Khmer was ousted due to an invasion by Vietnam in 1979.

Cambodian-Vietnamese War

Conflict that technically lasted from 1978-1989 after Vietnam invaded its neighbor to topple the Khmer Rouge/Democratic Kampuchea under Pol Pot. Vietnam then established a friendly government called the People’s Republic of Kampuchea. International pressure from both China and the US led to Vietnam’s withdrawal in 1989.

Laotian Civil War (aka Secret War)

Conflict between royalist and communist factions in Laos from 1959 to 1975. A 1962 agreement to form a coalition government to end the hostilities fell apart by 1964. The Paris Accords of 1973 led to an eventual ceasefire and a new coalition government. The victory of the communists in Vietnam in 1975, helped bolster the Pathet Lao communists in Laos and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic came into being in December after the monarchy was abolished.

Iranian coup (1953)

The US and UK backed regime change in Iran that removed Mohammad Mosaddegh as premier and gave increased power to the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Mosaddegh had led parliament to nationalize the oil industry that supplied the Western powers a significant amount of their energy. The Eisenhower administration used CIA assets under the direction of Kermit Roosevelt to pursue regime change.

Islamic Revolution in Iran

Uprising that began in January of 1978 and ended with the removal of the government under the Shah on February 11, 1979. The Shah’s regime became increasingly autocratic and its secular and Western policies fomented increasing amounts of dissent. Student protests against the continued exile of Ayatollah Khomeini led to a declaration of martial law and deadly repression. Strikes turned into a general protest that shut down the capital and led to the Shah fleeing the country. The military refused to support the interim government after Khomeini returned in February, and the government collapsed completely.

Suez Crisis

Conflict in Egypt that began in October 1956, after France and the UK conspired with Israel to invade the Sinai Peninsula as a pretense for seizing the Suez Canal that Gamal Abdel Nasser and recently nationalized. Israel invaded on October 29th and the UK and France landed troops to “protect” the canal zone. The US was not informed of the plot and quickly made their displeasure known by sponsoring a UN resolution to remove all foreign troops. The event diverted attention from the USSR invasion of Hungary and gave cover for the Soviets who framed the Suez Crisis as aggressive imperialism.

Six-Day War

Conflict between Israel and the allied forces of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria from June 5-10, 1967. Israel had struck against Syria and Jordan earlier in the year and Nasser responded by creating a mutual defense pact between Jordan and Egypt. He closed the Gulf of Aqaba in May to limit Israeli trade and Israeli air power responded with a preemptive assault on Egypt. Israeli forces captured the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip(Egypt), West Bank and East Jerusalem(Jordan), and Golan Heights (Syria).

Yom Kippur War (aka Fourth Arab-Israeli War)

Conflict that began on October 6, 1973, when Egypt and Syria attacked Israeli forces to regain territories occupied by Israel during the Six-Day War (1967). Israel was taken by surprise and was retreating before the US agreed to resupply their forces. The US changed their policy after the USSR began supplying Arab forces. The fighting ended on October 26th after intense pressure from the UN. The conflict would eventually lead to the return of the Sinai to Egypt, laying the groundwork for the Camp David Accords.

Bandung Conference

(aka Asian-African Conference) Meeting in Indonesia held from April 18-24, 1955, between 29 countries invited by Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India, and Pakistan to discuss means of asserting their influence over policy in Asia and Africa. It condemned colonialism “in all of its manifestations” which was a rebuke of both Western and Soviet actions. It set the stage for the Non-Aligned Movement.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

International organization representing countries that did not want to be dependent on or committed to the Eastern or Western powers during the Cold War. It began as a concept at the Bandung Conference of 1955, and was officially founded at the Belgrade Conference of 1961. The founding leaders were Tito of Yugoslavia, Nehru of India, Nasser of Egypt, Sukarno of Indonesia, and Nkrumah of Ghana. It has persisted as an organization that focuses on international cooperation and continues to include countries that are not part of a multilateral military alliance.

Attack on Vilnius

After the Lithuanian legislature declared independence on March 11, 1990, the USSR responded with military action on January 11-13, 1991, killing 14 civilians and injuring over a hundred more. The people were trying to keep Soviet troops from controlling the local TV tower and studio to hinder the independence movement. Gorbachev authorized no more military violence after the event.

Baltic Way

Peaceful demonstration on August 23, 1989, across Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia where around two million people joined hands in a 600km human chain expressing their unity in the struggle for independence from the USSR.

East German/Prague Refugee Crisis

Situation in the late summer to early fall of 1989 that saw thousands of East German citizens travel to Prague and pass inside the gates of the West German embassy to try and obtain visas to the West. Eventually negotiations led to the refugees being allowed to travel to West Germany, but were made to give up their East German citizenship.

Charter 77

Document created in Czechoslovakia in 1977 by Václav Havel and nearly 2,000 others that pushed for democratic reforms after a crackdown on dissent by the communist government. It called for the implementation of human rights guaranteed under the Helsinki Accords signed in 1975. Members of the group that produced it were jailed and persecuted.

Prague Spring

Time of reforms in Czechoslovakia in 1968, that was violently halted by an invasion of Warsaw Pact troops. Changes to the economic and political systems that favored market and democratic reforms were championed by Alexander Dubček. Students and writers started to foment resistance and began protesting in the years leading up to the Spring. This pressure along with economic difficulties in the country forced the communist leader Antonín Novotny to resign in favor of Dubček. His new Action Program inspired the Two Thousand Words manifesto to be issued in June that called for full democracy. Feeling that the reforms were getting out of hand and becoming “counterrevolutionary,” the Warsaw Pact met and warned Dubček. He believed he had negotiated a truce with Moscow, but on August 20th troops invaded and took Dubček to Moscow resulting in the Moscow Protocol that rolled back reforms and eventually replaced his government.

Socialism with a Human Face

Moniker for the slate of reforms that would incorporate the Action Program under Alexander Dubček announced in April 1968, that created the Prague Spring. It included market reforms and removed censorship of literature and the press.

Czech coup (1948)

(aka the February Coup) The overtaking of the Czeckoslavakian government in favor of a single-rule communist government. Klement Gottwald was the prime minister of the coalition government created by elections in 1946, but the Communist Party was losing support by 1948. The police and defense apparatus had been filled with communists and they began silencing critics with arrests and harassment. Stalin ordered Gottwald to begin purging other government offices of non-communists and on February 21st, many non-communist ministers resigned in protest. Gottwald forced President Benes to replace them with communists and a new constitution was in place by May, creating a people's democratic state with Gottwald as president.

Hungarian Uprising (1956)

Resistance against the communist government in Hungary in late 1956. Fighting broke out in October after mass protests and led to a new government under Imre Nagy. Nagy declared Hungary to be neutral and withdrew from the Warsaw Pact. He called for a multiparty democracy and other political reforms. The USSR invaded on November 4th and crushed all resistance after installing a new communist government.

Poznań Riots (1956)

A popular uprising in the Polish town of Poznań during June 1956. Workers struck against low wages and high prices on June 28th and soon 30,000 people were demonstrating. Riots ensued and troops responded, killing dozens. The demonstrations were halted, but convinced the ruling Polish United Workers’ Party to change policies and put Władysław Gomułka in power as the first secretary.

Solidarity Movement (aka Independent Self-Giverning Trade Union)

A Polish trade union movement that sought to create a union independent of the government. It was founded on September 22, 1980, and won concessions from the communist government until the movement was outlawed in December 1981. It became the leading political power after being legalized in 1989, as reforms were again instituted and its leader, Lech Wałesa, was elected president in 1990.

Novocherkassk Massacre

Attack on striking workers in Novocherkassk, Russia by the Soviet Army that killed at least 24 workers and injured dozens more on June 2, 1962. The Electric Locomotive Works plantworkers struck after they received wage cuts after price increases were announced nationwide. Thousands joined with the workers to protest and began to march on the local Communist Party headquarters. The Army fired on the protesters and arrested hundreds. Many were imprisoned and seven strikers were executed after their trials. The victims were buried outside the city and the incident was covered up. The event showed that Khrushchev’s thaw and liberalization efforts remained limited.

Tbilisi Riots (1956)

Protests from March 4-10, 1956, against the “Secret Speech” by Khrushchev that denounced Stalin, a native of Georgia. The protests began with a memorial on the anniversary of Stalin’s death and quickly escalated to protests calling for a change in government. The Soviet Army was called in on the night of the 9th and crushed the protest killing dozens.

Soviet Coup attempt (1957) (aka Anti-Party Group crisis)

Event in the USSR where rival party leaders attempted to remove Nikita Khrushchev from power. The effort was led by Georgi Malenkov, Lazar Kaganovich, and Vyacheslav Molotov. It was a response to the de-Stalinization efforts of Khrushchev, but the rival efforts to put Nikolai Bulganin in as First Secretary were thwarted due to Khrushchev’s control of the Central Committee and his support from the Red Army. The failed leaders were labeled Anti-Party and were demoted to various posts across the USSR.

Soviet Coup attempt (1991)

Failed attempt during August 19-21, 1991, to remove Gorbachev from power in the USSR. The Soviet President was vacationing in Crimea when he was taken hostage in his own dacha. Hardliners in the government, led by Gennady Yanayev, formed the State Committee on the State of Emergency (Gang of Eight) to stop Gorbachev’s reform efforts. Boris Yeltsin led popular protests against the coup efforts outside of the White House in Moscow and troops refused to fire on demonstrators. The coup collapsed quickly and its plotters were arrested. Their actions further eroded already weakened support for the Communist Party and despite Gorbachev’s return the Party’s activities were suspended in the USSR by the end of August.

Warsaw Pact

Mutual Defense treaty signed on May 14, 1955 that lasted until July 1, 1991. It included Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland. Albania would withdraw in 1968 due to the Czech invasion. It was inspired by the addition of West Germany into NATO.

Eastern bloc

Term for the socialist countries of Eastern Europe aligned with the USSR during the Cold War. The group was generally considered to include Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Romania. Yugoslavia was originally included before its split with Stalin in 1948. Albania was also aligned with the Soviets, but more independent than the others and withdrew from a direct alliance in 1961. The others stayed true to Moscow for the most part, but Romania often bucked directives and all other countries, save for Bulgaria, saw significant uprisings fueled by desires to move out of the Soviet orbit.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Policy of the USSR under Leonid Brezhnev that was articulated in 1968 in response to the Prague Spring. It stated that Soviet and Warsaw Pact forces could intervene in a member country where continued socialist rule was threatened.

Eurocommunism

Movement amongst European communist parties away from ties to the USSR beginning in the 1970s. The invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 helped inspire the move. Eurocommunists believed in socialist solutions for their countries, but did not want to be aligned with a world-wide movement, especially one associated with the totalitarian tendencies of the USSR.

Helsinki Accords (aka Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE))

Agreement signed on August 1, 197, to reduce Cold War tensions by codifying post-war borders and political controls in Europe. The US, Canada, and all of Europe (except Albania) signed the agreements which were non-binding, but had significant impacts. It included “baskets’ on security, trade, and human rights commitments such as freedom of travel and information. The commitments would energize dissent organizations globally and within the Eastern Bloc.

Helsinki Watch Committees (aka Human Rights Watch (as of 1988))

Organization founded in 1978, to push the USSR and Eastern Bloc countries to adhere to the Helsinki Accords. It sent monitors into countries and shared information about abuses to put pressure on governments to follow through on human rights commitments

Paris Charter (1990) (Charter of Paris for a New Europe)

Agreement of European countries, the US, and Canada on November 21, 1990. The treaty formalized the Helsinki Accords and created the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). The goal was to integrate the former Eastern Bloc nations politically with the West and create a new lasting framework for stability.

The (Khrushchev) Thaw

The liberalization of government controls in the Soviet Union over culture and discussion. It allowed cinema, art, and literature to be created more freely and political dissent to be expressed more openly. It was generated by the de-Stalinzation process led by Khrushchev beginning in the mid-fifties. It allowed for the publication of iconic works such as Doctor Zhivago, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovitch, as well as films and artwork that did not stick to the previously required confines of socialist realism. The thaw was not even-handed and many of the discussions and creations that resulted were subsequently repressed as anti-Soviet or harmful to society.

Stalinism

Repressive style of rule under Joseph Stalin from 1929-1953 known for purges, paranoia, and totalitarianism. It focused on using nationalism, class warfare, and intimidation through an extensive police apparatus to create a cult of personality around the leader and maintain control.

Stasi (Ministry for State Security)

Secret police apparatus in East Germany from 1950-1990. It was modeled on the NKVD and KGB in the USSR. Erich Mielke expanded the Stasi into a seemingly omnipresent spying organization with 100,000 employees and some 2 million informants.

communism/democratic socialism/social democracy

Various forms of socialist political thought and theory. Generally, social democracy consists of efforts to further equalize democratic systems with socialist policies and institutions such as providing government services to all. Democratic socialism favors a transition to complete socialism or shared ownership of the means of production through democratic systems. Communism is a theoretical state of pure equality in a classless and moneyless society that is achieved by total government control of all factors of production that is often sought via a dictatorship of the proletariat that ostensibly moves society towards this goal using socialism.

domino theory

foreign policy political belief adopted by the US in the Cold War that asserted the “fall to communism” of one country in a region would lead to others following suit. President Truman pushed the theory to support Greece and Turkey in the Mediterranean and it was used as justification for involvement in Vietnam and Southeast Asia.

Détente

An easing of tensions during the Cold War from the late-sixties to the late-seventies that was highlighted by Nixon’s visit to China, the Helsinki Accords, and the SALT agreements. It fell out of favor in the US with those fearing Soviet human right abuses were being acquiesced to and the expansion of Soviet influence in Africa and other places was being overlooked. It ended with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

SALT I and II (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)

Agreements to reduce stockpiles of ballistic nuclear missiles controlled by the US and USSR. The first was signed by Leonid Brezhnev in 1972 with the Nixon administration after talks had started under Johnson. It included the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty that kept the deterrent against using nuclear weapons in place. The second set of negotiations began almost immediately and lasted until 1979. It limited the number of MIRVs and total weapons allowed and was signed by President Carter, but failed to gain ratification and was pulled from consideration after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

Second Cold War

Period of increased tension between the US and USSR that began with the end of détente in the late 1970s before fully emerging after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. It peaked during the Reagan administration with policies of increasing arms and attempted rollback, but began to thaw with the appointment of Mikhail Gorbachev as General Secretary in 1985.

Geneva Summit (1985)

First meeting between superpower leaders President Reagan and Secretary Gorbachev in November 1985. No agreements were made, but the discussions about arms control built up a rapport between the two leaders that would allow for further agreements that helped facilitate the end of the Cold War.

Reykjavik summit

Meeting in Iceland between President Reagan and Premier Gorbachev from October 11-12, 1986. It was noted for coming close to a complete abandonment of nuclear weapons by the superpowers. The attempts at negotiations created an understanding between the leaders that resulted in a limiting of weapons and a relationship that would help to greatly reduce tensions and facilitate an end to the Cold War.

Moscow Summit (1988)

Meeting between President Reagan and Secretary Gorbachev from May 29-June 3, 1988, that finalized the INF Treaty and produced seven agreements that further evolved relations between the two countries by increasing cultural exchanges and agreements on economic policies. It was the last full summit before the election of George H.W. Bush.

Malta Summit (1989)

Meeting aboard naval vessels off the coast of Malta between President George H.W. Bush and Secretary Gorbachev on December 2-3, 1989. It was declared to be the end of the Cold War by the participants despite a lack of firm agreements. The two leaders did make symbolic acknowledgements that the era of the Cold War had ended as indicated by the recent tearing down of the Berlin Wall.

Glasnost

Soviet policy championed by Mikhail Gorbachev that focused on transparency and openness of government action. It included the wider dissemination of information and allowed for more political discourse.

Perestroika (restructuring)

Policy of the USSR under Mikhail Gorbachev to reconstitute the government and economy in order to modernize the country beginning in 1985. It sought to add market-style reforms, which were welcome, but the limited changes did more to harm the existing structure than improve it.

USSR

Fifteen areas that comprised the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics which was first established in 1917 and lasted until 1991. It was the largest country at the time and covered ⅙ of the land area on Earth. Its government was headed by local Soviets that fed into the Supreme Soviet in Moscow, though the Communist Party apparatus had de facto control. The Republics consisted of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belorussia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgiziya, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.