POLI SCI GOAT

What are institutions and why do they matter?

Structured rules that organize political behaviour and shape how power is used in society.

Difference between a nation and a state?

Nation = shared identity; State = governing authority over territory and population.

How does nationalism interact with the state?

It can support the state or demand autonomy/independence.

Why is politics conflictual?

Groups compete over scarce resources and influence.

What is political power?

The ability to influence others and shape outcomes.

What are law and policy?

Law = enforceable rules; Policy = government actions or inactions.

What determines who makes laws and policies?

The system of government (democratic vs. authoritarian).

Key features of democracy?

Majority rule, rule of law, accountable government, competitive elections.

How do democracies vs. authoritarian regimes handle dissent?

Democracies allow competition; authoritarian regimes suppress it.

Why must democracies be protected?

They can erode through populism, power concentration, and attacks on institutions.

What is representative democracy in Canada?

Elected officials govern within a constitutional monarchy requiring parliamentary confidence.

What major issues divide Canadians politically?

Taxes, health care, environment, debt, economy, and Indigenous reconciliation.

What drives political conflict?

Different values and interests shaping what people want government to prioritize.

What major challenges will Canada face?

Inequality, climate change, debt, health care, Indigenous reconciliation, security, demographics, technology.

What is the rule of law?

Everyone—including government—is subject to law, ensuring fairness and preventing abuse of power.

What are core components of democracy?

Free elections, rule of law, accountable government, civil liberties, and majority rule with minority rights.

What threatens democracy today?

Polarization, authoritarianism, disinformation, declining trust, and weakened institutions.

What is a constitution?

Fundamental written and unwritten rules (including conventions) guiding government authority.

What did the Constitution Act

1982 establish?,Patriation, amending formulas, and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

What are the main categories of constitutional amendments?

Unanimous consent, 7/50 formula, provincial-specific, federal-alone, and provincial-alone amendments.

What does the Charter protect—and exclude?

Protects fundamental, legal, equality, language, and mobility rights; excludes most positive/collective rights.

What do Sections 1 and 33 of the Charter do?

Section 1 allows reasonable limits; Section 33 lets governments temporarily override certain rights.

Why did Meech Lake and Charlottetown fail

and what is the Clarity Act?,Both accords failed due to constitutional fatigue and lack of consensus. The Clarity Act sets rules for any future Québec separation referendum.

Why do countries need constitutions

and what changed in 1982?,Constitutions define government powers and protect rights. In 1982, Canada patriated its Constitution, added the Charter, and introduced amending formulas.

What is constitutionalism and what are the main components of Canada's Constitution?

Government must act within legal limits. Canada's Constitution includes written rules, unwritten conventions, the Charter, and entrenched provisions.

Question

Answer

What types of law exist in Canada and what is parliamentary supremacy?

Constitutional law (supreme), statute law, and common law. Parliament can make laws, but courts may strike them down if unconstitutional.

What are Canada's five amending formulas?

Unanimous; 7/50 (major issues); provincial-specific; Parliament-alone; province-alone.

What rights does the Charter protect

and what do Sections 1 and 33 do?,Protects negative rights (freedoms, mobility, legal, equality, language, education). Section 1 allows justified limits; Section 33 allows temporary overrides.

What distinguishes unitary and federal systems

and what is the centralization continuum?,Unitary = one authority; federal = divided powers. Continuum: unitary → centralized federalism → decentralized federalism → confederation.

How are powers divided in Canada and what is residual power?

Section 91 (federal), Section 92 (provincial), some concurrent powers. Residual power goes to the federal government.

How has federalism shifted over time and what is asymmetrical federalism?

JCPC strengthened provinces; wars/fiscal power later strengthened Ottawa; provinces reasserted power from 1960s onward. Asymmetrical federalism gives some provinces unique powers (e.g., Quebec).

What is fiscal federalism

fiscal imbalance, and the status of local governments?,Fiscal federalism manages money between governments; fiscal imbalance = provinces lack revenue for responsibilities. Local governments have no constitutional status, rely on property taxes, and face growing demands.

Why is equalization controversial

what's the shared-cost debate, and why is private health care divisive?,Equalization redistributes money (seen as unfair or creating dependency). Shared-cost: coordination vs. federal intrusion. Private care: efficiency vs. equity.

Root of Québec sovereignty + key tensions?

Nationalism seeking autonomy. Key tensions: Manitoba Schools, Conscription, language/bilingualism issues.

Manitoba Schools + Conscription Issue?

Manitoba: religion/language school rights. Conscription: opposition to forced service; 1918 riots.

Language issues & Québec identity?

Central to protecting French identity; recurring political disputes.

Québec Referendums (1980 & 1995)?

1980: 40% for sovereignty-association. 1995: Extremely close (49.4% Yes).

Patriation 1982 & Clarity Act?

Constitution patriated without Québec's consent. Clarity Act: Ottawa judges "clear" question and "clear" majority.

Modern Québec politics (PQ

Liberals, CAQ)?,PQ (sovereigntist), Liberals (federalist-nationalist), CAQ since 2018 (nationalist, non-separatist, affordability/language focus).

Ideological shift + Bill 21?

Identity and secularism replaced independence. Bill 21 bans religious symbols for some public workers.

Bill 21 controversy + notwithstanding clause?

Seen as discriminatory (affecting minorities, esp. Muslims/Jews). CAQ invoked Section 33 to override Charter rights.

Indigenous rights basics (historic

treaty, title)?,Historic: pre-contact land/use. Treaty: rights from agreements with the Crown. Title: land claim based on traditional occupancy.

Key legislation & policies (Royal Proclamation

Indian Act, residential schools, Bill C-31, TRC, MMIWG)?,Royal Proclamation (1763) → land rules & treaty foundation. Indian Act → governs status/reserves. Residential schools → forced assimilation. Bill C-31 → fixes discrimination. TRC (2015) → 94 Calls to Action. MMIWG Inquiry (2019).

Land claims + 1973 Nisga'a significance?

Comprehensive: no treaty exists → modern treaties. Specific: disputes about existing treaties. 1973 minority opinion: Aboriginal title is inherent from historical occupation—basis for post-1982 rights.

Sparrow (1990) - Indigenous rights?

Fishing is a pre-existing Indigenous right, protected by Section 35; rights aren't created by government, continue unless extinguished, and regulation must meet Section 35 limits.

Delgamuukw - claims & outcome?

Gitksan/Wet'suwet'en claimed ownership, law-making authority, and compensation. SCC ruled they own the land (unextinguished title), establishing that historic occupancy = property rights. No constitutional right to self-government.

Marshall case - treaty fishing rights?

Section 35 protects treaty-based fishing rights (1760-61 treaties). Later clarified: communal right to a moderate livelihood, not unlimited fishing.

Resource conflicts?

Conflicts over resources/pipelines (Coastal GasLink, Northern Gateway, TMX, Elsipogtog 2013) when land claims unresolved.

Indian Act governance + self-government?

Indian Act dismantled traditional governance; imposed band councils. Self-government = Indigenous control over people, land, resources, and programs (e.g., Yukon FN, Nisga'a, Labrador Inuit).

Legal basis of Indigenous rights?

Section 35, treaties, and case law (Calder, Sparrow, Delgamuukw).

Assimilation policy?

Goal: erase Indigenous governance/culture. Failed: resistance + legal recognition of rights.

Needed political changes?

Implement self-government, resolve land claims, honour rights, share resources fairly, continue reconciliation work.

Question

Answer

Crown in Canada - King & Governor General?

King = head of state; GG exercises powers on his behalf. GG appoints/removes Privy Council members and performs formal powers on advice of PM/Cabinet.

Privy Council?

Body of current/former ministers; holds formal powers but acts strictly on Cabinet/PM advice.

Governor General powers?

PM recommends GG. GG summons/dissolves Parliament, appoints judges/senators, gives Royal Assent—all by convention on PM's advice.

Prerogative powers?

Crown powers exercised by ministers: Foreign affairs (treaties, war, troops, ambassadors). Routine: passports, honours, clemency, exemptions.

Political executive (PM + Cabinet)?

PM is most powerful; ministers run departments; ministers of state assist. Cabinet = senior ministers; ministry = all ministers.

Cabinet conventions?

Three conventions: Collective responsibility, solidarity, secrecy.

Government types + PMO/PCO?

Majority, minority, coalition (rare). FPTP → mostly majorities. PMO = political strategists (advice, PR, SFT draft, scheduling). PCO = civil-service secretariat (agenda, minutes, conveying decisions). Clerk heads PCO.

Privy Council Office (PCO)?

~500 staff; research and divisions for intergovernmental affairs, gov't machinery, foreign affairs, senior personnel, security/intelligence; supports Cabinet/PM.

Treasury Board & Secretariat?

President of Treasury Board + 6 ministers (incl. Finance). Responsibilities: 1) review govt expenditures, 2) manage personnel/salaries. TBS provides analysis/support.

Department of Finance?

Fiscal policy, economic forecasting, advising Cabinet, taxation/spending. International tax unit negotiates treaties, analyzes foreign tax impacts.

Prime Minister power?

Oversees Cabinet, patronage, party discipline. Limited in minority gov'ts. Raises debate about "too much power."

Formal vs. political executive?

Formal = King, GG, Privy Council (constitutional authority). Political = PM & Cabinet (actual power). Executive dominance = PM/Cabinet primary over Parliament; exists today.

Parliament basics?

Parliamentary democracy; Parliament = repository of popular sovereignty, makes/changes laws; bicameral = House of Commons (elected) + Senate (appointed).

Parliament functions?

Three main functions: 1) Policy-making, 2) Representing citizens, 3) System maintenance. House of Commons: represents, authorizes govt, passes laws, holds exec accountable, 338 MPs from ridings.

Parliamentary rules?

Standing Orders = permanent rules; Orders of the Day = daily schedule; Government business = items govt introduces; Opposition Days = opposition sets debate topics; Question Period = hold govt accountable.

Parliamentary roles?

Key actors: Speaker = maintain order; Clerk = documents, advises Speaker; House Leaders = schedule/manage party business; Whips = enforce party discipline.

Committees?

Types: Committee of the Whole = all MPs; Standing = permanent (policy/dept review); Joint = House + Senate; Legislative = temporary bill review.

Bills?

Proposed legislation; types = 1) Government bills, 2) Private members' bills (public). Gov't bills dominant.

Legislative process?

House of Commons: 3 readings + committee review; Senate: 3 readings; Royal Assent → becomes law.

Conflict of interest & ethics?

Conflict = private economic interest influencing public duties. Patronage = partisan reward. Pork-barrelling = regional favors for support. Trudeau: 3 ethics violations; Federal Accountability Act improves ethics.

Executive dominance & PMO/PCO?

PMO = political staff (advice, PR, Speech from the Throne, scheduling). PCO = civil service (Cabinet secretariat, minutes, agenda, conveying decisions).

Minority vs majority governments?

Majority = decisive, PM strong; Minority = PM power constrained, needs consensus. Coalition rare (e.g., 2021-24 Liberal-NDP supply/confidence).

Political Parties & Discipline?

Dominate operations; enforce party discipline via leaders, whips, caucus. Supports stable government but limits MP autonomy.

Parliamentary Procedure: Debate Limits?

Closure (SO 57) ends debate next sitting; Time Allocation (SO 78) limits debate per stage. Both require majority vote; minority gov't rarely controls.

Senate Basics?

Seats & representation: 105 seats; regionally allocated (Ontario 24, Québec 24, Maritimes 24, Western 24, Newfoundland 6, Territories 3). Smaller provinces overrepresented (e.g., PEI). Functions: Introduce non-money bills, review/delay legislation, provide regional voice. Reform debate: Triple-E = Elected, Effective, Equal; requires constitutional amendment.

Ethics & Accountability?

Conflict of interest, patronage, pork-barrelling. Trudeau: 3 ethics violations. Federal Accountability Act introduced to improve ethics. Party discipline vs free votes: Discipline = stable, coherent govt; Free votes = MP independence, constituent representation.

Public Administration: Bureaucracy?

Formulation = develop strategies/policies. Implementation = execute via programs/regulations. Hierarchy ensures efficiency/accountability/clarity. DMs manage daily ops, advise ministers, implement decisions.

Bureaucracy Size & Spending?

Trudeau-era growth: +42% federal bureaucrats; $67.4B in 2022-23 (68% ↑ since 2016); >$1B bonuses since 2015; >1M pay raises 2023-24; $21.6B consultants.

Ministerial Responsibility?

Ministers accountable for departmental actions; rely on public servants for advice; central to cabinet-bureaucracy link.

Cabinet Structures?

Departmentalized = minister autonomy. Centralized = PMO/PCO dominate; reduces ministerial control; DMs balance loyalties.

Budgeting & Public Finance?

Budget = planned revenues/expenditures. Components: 1) Expenditure process, 2) Revenue process. Deficit = spending > revenue; Surplus = revenue > spending; Debt = cumulative deficits. 2023-24 specifics: Interest share 7.4%→9.4%, "wasted" $93.8B.

Bureaucratic Accountability?

Accountable to ministers & Parliament. Mechanisms: Parliamentary committees, monitoring agencies, Auditor General, Access to Information Act. Hiring: merit-based, ensures neutrality/efficiency.

Question

Answer

Politicians vs Bureaucrats?

Politicians set priorities and are accountable; bureaucrats may influence outcomes via expertise, continuity, and information control.

Federal Debt?

Concern if debt increases interest, reduces flexibility, burdens taxpayers. Counterpoint: can fund growth, public services, stabilize economy if sustainable. Highlights tension between fiscal responsibility, social spending, and intergenerational equity.

Courts & Law?

Resolve disputes, interpret law, ensure justice. Civil law = disputes between private parties (compensation). Criminal law = offences against society (punishment). Court structure: lower courts → appeal courts → Supreme Court. Supreme Court = highest authority; handles appeals and constitutional interpretation. Provincial courts handle most criminal/civil cases, family law, youth justice, preliminary inquiries.

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms?

Impacts since 1982: limits government, expands judicial review, shapes public policy, protects citizens. Judges/lawyers → increased constitutional litigation; Police → rules on searches/arrests/evidence; Citizens → enforceable rights. Rights jurisprudence = court decisions interpreting rights (equality, marriage, religious freedom, LGBTQ+).

Police & Security?

Enforce law, maintain public order. Federal: RCMP; Provincial: OPP; Municipal: local forces. RCMP can contract provincially/municipally. Intelligence oversight: CSIS gathers intel; SIRC/NSIRA reviews legality/accountability.

Corrections?

Sentences ≥2 yrs → federal (Corrections Canada, accountable to Public Safety Minister), <2 yrs → provincial.

Criminal Justice Policy?

Defining crime = decisions on what behaviour to criminalize (drugs, hate speech, MAID). Enforcement & aims: reduce crime, punish, rehabilitate, or address social causes (poverty, mental health). Approaches: Enforcement/deterrence, Rehabilitation/correction, Social policy to prevent crime.

Indigenous Justice?

Major issues: systemic racism, overrepresentation in prisons. Case example: Donald Marshall Jr. → wrongful conviction highlighting systemic bias. Contributing factors: Residential schools, assimilation policies, Indian Act, historical trauma. Reform strategies: incorporate Indigenous laws/values, restorative justice, healing circles, reconciliation.

Counter-Terrorism Policy (Post-2001)?

Major changes: increased state security, extended detention (24→72 hrs), no-fly lists, Security Certificates. Security Certificate ruling: 2007 Supreme Court → process violated Charter (Sections 7, 9, 10).

Security Certificates & Charter?

Process amended post-2007: special advocates represent accused but only see summaries, cannot share with client. Charter pros: protects rights, increases government accountability, empowers citizens. Cons: courts gain power over elected officials, litigation costs, legal uncertainty.

Prisons & Indigenous Justice?

Goals of prisons: punishment/deterrence, rehabilitation, public safety, address social causes. Debate: separate Indigenous justice systems. Pros: respect laws/traditions, focus on healing, address systemic racism. Cons: conflicts with national law, consistency, public safety.

Post-9/11 Security Policies?

Support: effective terrorism prevention. Critique: may infringe due process, privacy, fair trial rights.

Political Parties & Party Systems?

Political party = organization seeking state power. Party system = relationships/competition among parties; can be competitive (multi-party) or uncompetitive. Canada: historically 2-party (Liberal, Conservative); NDP created 2.5-party system; 1993: Progressive Conservatives collapse, Bloc Québécois and Reform emerge. Current main parties: Liberal, Conservative, NDP, Bloc Québécois, Green. Party ideologies: Liberal = centrist, Conservative = right-of-center, NDP = left-of-center, Bloc = Quebec sovereignty, Green = environmental/progressive.