BIOL 1406 Final Exam

Biology

the scientific study of life

Cellular Specialization

In multicellular organisms, the division of labor such that different cell types become responsible for different functions (e.g., reproduction or digestion) within the organism.

Photosynthesis

process by which plants use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Nucleotides

Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of 4 DNA bases

Genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission

Proteins

Nutrients the body uses to build and maintain its cells and tissues

Evolution

Change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms.

Populations

Groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Adaptations

Changes in physical structure, function, or behavior that allow an organism or species to survive and reproduce in a given environment.

Bacteria

single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus; prokaryotes

Archaea

Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan

Eukarya

Domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei, including protists, plants, fungi, and animals

Tissues

Groups of cells with a common structure and function.

Organs

A structure consisting of several tissues adapted as a group to perform specific functions.

Organ Systems

A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions.

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Community

All the different populations that live together in an area

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Data

Facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis

Hypotheses

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Comparative Experiment

Experimental design in which data from various unmanipulated samples or populations are compared, but in which variables are not controlled or even necessarily identified.

Controlled Experiment

An experiment in which only one variable is manipulated at a time.

Null Hypothesis

a statement or idea that can be falsified, or proven wrong

Model System

An organism chosen to study broad biological principles

Atom

Basic unit of matter

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

Protons

Positively charged subatomic particles

Neutrons

Neutral charge

Electrons

Negatively charged subatomic particles

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons

Element

A pure substance made of only one kind of atom

Radioisotopes

Isotopes that have unstable nuclei and undergo radioactive decay.

Electron Shells

An energy level of electrons at a characteristic average distance from the nucleus of an atom

Electron Orbital

How electrons are spatially distributed surrounding the nucleus; the area where an electron is most likely to be found

Molecule

A group of atoms bonded together

Chemical Bond

the attractive force that holds atoms or ions together

Compound

A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share electrons - strongest bond

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally

Ion

A charged atom

Cation

A positively charged ion

Anion

A negatively charged ion

Ionic Attraction

Attraction of opposite charges

Hydrogen Bond

A weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom

Van der Waals forces

A slight attraction that develops between the oppositely charged regions of nearby molecules

Chemical Reactions

The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter

Reactants

A starting material in a chemical reaction

Products

The elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction.

Energy

the ability to do work

Specific Heat

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree celcius

Heat of Vaporization

The amount of energy required for the liquid at its boiling point to become a gas

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance

Surface Tension

the attractive intermolecular forces at the surface of a liquid

Solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Solute

A substance that is dissolved in a solution.

Solvent

A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances

Acidic

ph less than 7, can release a H+

Basic

pH greater than 7, can accept a H+

pH

Hydrogen ion concentration

Low pH

strong acid

High pH

strong base

Buffer

a substance that can transiently accept or release hydrogen ions and thereby resist changes in pH

Macromolecules

A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules (Carbs, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Proteins)

Polymers

chains of monomers

Monomers

A chemical subunit that serves as a building block of a polymer.

Functional Groups

the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions

Structural isomers

Differ in arrangement of atoms.

Cis-trans isomers

have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements

Optical isomers

Two molecular isomers that are mirror images of each other

Condensation reactions

A chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to produce water or another simple molecule

Hydrolysis reactions

catabolic reactions that break down substrates into small molecules; requires the input of water to break bonds

Polypeptide Chain

long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Amino Acids

building blocks of proteins

Side Chain

Another term for R-group. A variable group that determines the unique chemical properties of a particular amino acid.

R Group

a functional group that defines a particular amino acid and gives it special properties.

Peptide Linkages

To form proteins, many amino acids are linked together by _

Primary Structure

The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure

The second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain.

alpha helix and beta pleated sheet

What are the two most common types of secondary protein structure?

pleated sheet

The folded arrangement of a polypeptide in a protein's secondary structure.

Disulfide Bridges

A strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.

Tertiary Structures

the complex three-dimensional structure of a single peptide chain; held in place by disulfide bonds between cysteines.

Quaternary Structures

levels of protein that exist for very large, complex proteins; when tertiary structures act together

Denature

A change in the shape of a protein (such as an enzyme) that can be caused by changes in temperature or pH (among other things).

Chaperone proteins

assist in folding other proteins

Carbohydrates

the starches and sugars present in foods

Monosaccharides

simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose)

Hexoses

six carbon sugars

Glucose

A simple sugar that is an important source of energy C6H12O6

Pentoses

Five carbon sugars. Ribose, deoxyribose.

Glycosidic Linkages

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

Disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

Oligosaccharide

A polymer containing a small number of monosaccharides.

Polysaccharide

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

Glycogen

Storage form of glucose

Cellulose

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms