AP Euro: Ch 24-25 Test

age of modernity, anxiety, imperialism & beginning of 20th century crisis: war n rev

John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, 1920

* seminal work in field of econ
* argues that Treaty of Versailles (which ended WWI) imposed unfair & unrealistic economic demands to Germany which would lead to econ ruin/instability, social unrest & ultimately another war
* terms of treaty but germany in difficult situation to recover economically which could harm the rest of europe
* correct about the outcomes & Treaty of Versailles contributed to rise of Hitler and outbreak of WWII

Ernest Renan, “What is a Nation?”  1882 lecture at the University of Paris

* seeks to answer the question of what constitutes a nation and what makes a group of people feel a shared sense of identity and belonging
* argues that a nation is not simply defined by shared ethnicity or language, but by a shared sense of historical memory and a willingness to live together in a political community
* nation is created through a process of forgetting and remembering, in which certain historical events and myths are selectively remembered and passed down through generations
* emphasizes the importance of individual will in the creation of a nation
* nation is not a natural or immutable entity, but is rather the result of the choices and actions of individuals who are willing to sacrifice for the common good of the community
* debate and discussion about the nature of nationalism and the role of historical memory in the formation of national identity

“China – the Cake of kings and… of emperors”, 1898 French political cartoon

* scramble for territory and influence in China by European powers during the late 19th century
* china was rich and potentially lucrative market for European goods, and European powers were competing to secure access to Chinese markets and resources
* reflects the imperialistic attitudes of European powers towards China, and the belief that China was a weak and vulnerable country that could be easily exploited
* highlights the arrogance and greed of the European powers, who are shown jostling and fighting with each other to grab a piece of the cake, while ignoring the rights and sovereignty of the Chinese people

“Cutting up Africa”

Berlin Conference (1884-85) :

* series of meetings held in Berlin, Germany, where European powers divided up the continent of Africa into various colonial territories and spheres of influence
* euro powers negotiated and formalized their claims to African territory, often with little regard for existing African political systems or the wishes of the African people
* resulted in the partition of Africa into a patchwork of European colonies and protectorates, with little consideration for cultural or linguistic boundaries
* imposition of European colonial rule disrupted traditional African political and economic systems, and contributed to the exploitation and marginalization of African peoples

Emmeline Pankhurst, *My Own Story*, 1914

* fought in women’s suffrage movement (suffragette - extreme measures)
* one of most prominent leaders
* describes struggles & obstacles faced by suffragettes in fight for political equality
* used various tactics & strategies (ex. hunger strikes & acts of civil disobedience)
* provides a firsthand account of the suffrage movement and offers insights into the experiences and motivations of its leaders and participants
* highlights the deep-rooted gender inequalities that existed in British society at the time and the ways in which women were systematically excluded from the political process
* courage and determination of the suffragettes, and to the importance of fighting for social and political equality

Claude Monet, *Impression, Sunrise*, 1872

* impressionism :
* characterized by loose brushstrokes & emphasis on capturing changing effects of light & color
* paint the countryside or the streets
* not concerned with precision & more concerned w/ feeling n observation

Vincent Van Gogh, *Starry Night*

* post-impressionism :
* still emphasize light & color but now more attention to structure & form
* used color & line to express inner feeling & make personal statement of reality
* mark beginning of modern art

Vladimir Lenin, speech, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, Nov. 8, 1917

* given shortly before the Bolsheviks launched their assault on the palace and the Provisional Government inside
* emphasized the need for the Bolsheviks to seize power and establish a socialist government, arguing that the Provisional Government was incapable of achieving the revolutionary aims of the people
* called for the redistribution of land and the establishment of workers' control over factories and other means of production
* was a rallying cry for the Bolsheviks, who saw it as a call to action in their struggle to establish a socialist state in Russia
* Bolshevik cause and helped to mobilize the forces that would ultimately overthrow the Provisional Government

Vladimir Lenin, speech, St. Petersburg, December 1917

* focused on consolidating Bolshevik power and establishing a new socialist state in Russia
* affirmed the Bolsheviks' commitment to national self-determination and the rights of all peoples to determine their own political future
* called for the establishment of a federation of socialist republics in Russia, based on the principles of voluntary association and democratic governance
* nationalization of industry and the redistribution of land to peasants
* emphasized the importance of workers' control over factories and other means of production, and called for the establishment of a planned socialist economy

Edward D. Morel, *The Black Man’s Burden*, 1920

* focuses on the exploitation and mistreatment of the people of the Congo Free State by King Leopold II of Belgium
* exposes the brutal conditions under which the Congolese people were forced to work and the violence they faced at the hands of the colonial authorities
* criticizes the complicity of other European powers, including Britain, in enabling the exploitation of the Congo and the profits made from its natural resources
* argues that the burden of exploitation and suffering should not fall on the Congolese people, but rather on the European powers that have imposed their will on the region
* calls for an end to colonialism and the establishment of a fair and just system that respects the rights and dignity of all people
* indictment of colonialism and a call to action for greater international solidarity and support for the struggles of oppressed peoples
* response & another perspective other than White Man’s Burden

Carl Peters*, A Manifesto for German Colonization*, 1884

* argues for the establishment of a German colonial empire in Africa
* German explorer and politician who played a key role in the founding of the German East Africa Company, which controlled large parts of present-day Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi
* presents a vision of Germany as a great imperial power, with colonies that would provide raw materials and new markets for German industry
* argues that German colonization of Africa would bring civilization and progress to the continent, and that the native populations would benefit from German rule
* reveals a deeply racist and paternalistic attitude towards the people of Africa, whom he views as primitive and in need of European guidance
* advocates for the use of force to subjugate and control the native populations, and dismisses their cultures and traditions as inferior
* reflects the imperialist and colonialist mindset of the era, and provides insight into the thinking that drove European powers to colonize and exploit Africa
* pursued aggressive colonial policies in Africa and other parts of the world, leading to widespread suffering and exploitation of native peoples

John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World, 1919

* chronicles the events of the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 (russian revololution/bolshevik rev)
* Reed was a socialist and a supporter of the Bolsheviks
* provides a first-hand account of the revolution, including the rise of the Bolsheviks, the overthrow of the Provisional Government, and the establishment of Soviet power in Russia
* account is sympathetic to the Bolsheviks and their socialist vision for Russia, and he portrays the revolution as a popular uprising against the oppressive rule of the Tsar and the bourgeois Provisional Government
* highlights the role of workers and peasants in the revolution, and the establishment of new democratic institutions such as workers' councils and the Soviet government

Benedict Stuchtey, “Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450-1950,” 2011

* explores the development and impact of European colonialism and imperialism over a period of five hundred years
* argues that European colonialism was characterized by a complex mix of economic, political, and cultural motives, and that it had profound and lasting effects on the societies and peoples of the colonized world
* tracing the origins of European colonialism to the fifteenth century, when the Portuguese and Spanish began to explore and conquer territories outside of Europe
* notes that colonialism was driven in part by economic motives, including the desire for new markets, resources, and opportunities for trade
* emphasizes the importance of political and cultural factors, such as the desire for prestige and power, and the belief in the superiority of European civilization
* examine the different forms of European colonialism and imperialism that emerged over the centuries, including settler colonialism, where Europeans established permanent settlements in the colonies, and indirect rule, where Europeans governed through local elites
* discusses the impact of colonialism on the colonized societies, including the devastating effects of forced labor, disease, and cultural assimilation
* considers the legacy of European colonialism and imperialism, arguing that it had far-reaching effects on the world, including the rise of nationalist movements, the spread of Western ideas and institutions, and the shaping of the global economic order

Richard Schmieder. letter home from war, 20th century

* provides a vivid and emotional account of the horrors of war
* describe the staggering number of casualties that occurred during just three days of fighting
* expresses frustration and despair, noting that even the bravest soldiers can become sick of the fighting and feel like crying
* powerful and emotional glimpse into the experiences of soldiers during times of war, and highlights the devastating human toll that conflict can take

Herbert Spencer, *In Law and Cause*, 1857

* outlines his theory of social evolution which he believed was governed by fundamental law of progress
* progress is an inevitable and natural process that operates according to certain laws and principles
* believed that all aspects of society, from the natural world to human culture and civilization, follow a pattern of development that is marked by increasing complexity, diversity, and specialization
* progress is driven by the process of adaptation and the survival of the fittest, which he believed were natural laws that applied to both the natural world and human society
* progress is facilitated by the growth of knowledge and the accumulation of new ideas and discoveries
* influential in shaping 19th-century social thought, particularly in the fields of evolutionary biology and sociology
* emphasis on individualism and his opposition to government intervention in social and economic affairs

British trench near Albert-Bapaume road at Ovillers-la-Boisselle, July 1916 during the Battle of the Somme 

* formed on western front
* “no man’s land”
* trench was heavily fortified with barbed wire, sandbags, and other defensive structures, and was subjected to constant shelling and gunfire from the German side
* intense fighting and heavy casualties, the British forces were able to hold the trench and prevent the German forces from advancing
* battle was fought between the Allied forces, led by the British and French, and the German army, and was characterized by its massive scale and high casualty rates

Bismarck’s Alliance system

* goal was to maintain peace and avoid a two front war with France ( want to isolate them) to the west and Russia to the east
* maintain the balance of power in Europe and protect Germany's interests
* system was based on a series of treaties and alliances between Germany and other major European powers, including Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia
* Three Emperors' League in 1873, which united Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia against France
* fell apart in 1878 due to tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary over the Balkans
* Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, followed by the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882
* designed to strengthen Germany's position and prevent any potential enemy coalition from forming against them
* Congress of Berlin, 1878 :
* Bismark
* address the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and to redraw the borders of the Balkan region
* Ottoman Empire had suffered a significant military defeat in the war, leading to demands for independence from various Balkan states
* aimed to address these demands while also preventing a potential conflict between Russia and Austria-Hungary, who were vying for influence in the region
* signing of the Treaty of Berlin, which established new borders and boundaries in the Balkans, recognized the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, and gave Austria-Hungary control over Bosnia and Herzegovina
* marked the beginning of the "Scramble for Africa" and the renewed rivalry between the major powers that would eventually lead to World War I
* contributed to the ongoing tensions between the various Balkan states, which would lead to the outbreak of the Balkan Wars and ultimately World War I

Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina  in 1908

* Bosnia and Herzegovina were territories that had been administered by the Ottoman Empire for centuries but were occupied by Austria-Hungary in 1878 as part of the Congress of Berlin
* occupation was supposed to be temporary, but in 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed the territories outright
* major provocation for neighboring Serbia
* Serbian government was outraged by the annexation and saw it as a direct threat to its own territorial ambitions in the region
* caused tension between Austria-Hungary and Russia, which had historically been allies but were now on opposing sides of the issue
* Russia saw the annexation as an attempt by Austria-Hungary to expand its influence in the Balkans and potentially destabilize the region

Serbian nationalism

* Russia supported Serbia because of their ethnic bond – Slavic populations
* driven by a desire to unite all South Slavs under a single state, which would include not only Serbia but also Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, and other territories (Yugoslavism)
* major point of contention between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, which saw Serbian ambitions in the region as a threat to its own territorial integrity
* austria annex seen as direct challenge to Serbian aspirations in the region
* assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo in 1914 by a Serbian nationalist was the spark that ignited World War I
* Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and led to a chain reaction of events that ultimately led to the outbreak of war

Treaty of San Stefano, 1878

* created Bulgaria, considered a Russian satellite state
* peace treaty signed between Russia and the Ottoman Empire on March 3, 1878, following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878
* Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, and ceded significant territories to Russia, including parts of Armenia, Georgia, and the Balkans
* threatened the territorial integrity of several European states
* creation of a large, autonomous Bulgaria was seen as a particular threat to the interests of Austria-Hungary and Great Britain, who feared that it would become a Russian client state and destabilize the region
* revised treaty, known as the Treaty of Berlin, reduced the size of the newly created Bulgaria and granted more autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, which remained under Ottoman control
* treaty also recognized the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary, which had been threatened by the creation of a large, autonomous Bulgaria

Dismissal of Bismarck by William II

* dismissed Bismarck from his position as Chancellor, citing differences over the handling of a number of political issues
* dismissal was a major political upheaval and marked the end of Bismarck's political career
* had significant consequences for German politics and foreign policy
* Bismarck was widely respected as a skilled statesman and had been instrumental in the formation of the German Empire
* created a power vacuum that was difficult to fill, and subsequent Chancellors struggled to match his level of skill and influence
* master of diplomacy and had managed to maintain peace in Europe through a system of alliances and careful diplomacy; without him, Germany became more aggressive and assertive

New Imperialism in Asia and Africa

* driven by the desire to exploit the resources and peoples of Asia and Africa for the benefit of European powers
* Motivations:
* economic = natural resources and foreign markets
* desire to exploit the natural resources of the colonies
* wanted to control the sources of raw materials such as rubber, oil, copper, tin, and gold, as well as new markets for their manufactured goods
* colonies provided cheap raw materials for European factories and a captive market for their products
* political = nationalism “Top Dog” in Europe
* control of colonies and strategic points around the world gave them an advantage in competition with other European powers
* colonies were seen as a sign of national prestige and power, and their acquisition helped to legitimize the rule of imperial governments
* social/religious = “White Man’s Burden”
* social Darwinism and the belief in the superiority of the European race were used to justify imperial expansion
* bringing civilization and progress to backward peoples, and viewed their mission as one of cultural and social uplift
* Asia and Africa, European powers established colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence through military conquest or diplomatic treaties
* colonies were governed by European administrators and used forced labor and coercive systems to extract resources and maintain control
* had significant consequences for the colonized peoples, including the loss of political and economic independence, the imposition of Western values and institutions, and the suppression of local cultures and languages
* contributed to the growth of nationalist movements and the eventual dismantling of European empires in the 20th century

Berlin Conference of 1884-85

* meeting of European powers held in Berlin, Germany, to divide and regulate the colonization and trade of Africa among themselves
* attended by representatives of fourteen European nations, as well as the United States
* main purpose of the conference was to avoid conflict among European powers in the scramble for African territories and resources
* resulted in the partitioning of Africa into various colonies and protectorates, mostly under European control
* industrial revolution in Europe had created a demand for raw materials and new markets, and the new imperialism was a way to secure access to these resources
* desire for prestige and power, as well as the need to secure strategic military bases and trade routes
* missionary zeal, scientific curiosity, and racial attitudes

Social Darwinism - Herbert Spencer

* developed the concept of Social Darwinism
* theory applied Charles Darwin's ideas about natural selection and survival of the fittest to human society
* human society progressed through a natural process of competition, where only the strongest and most capable individuals survived and passed on their traits to their offspring
* believed that society should be organized on a laissez-faire basis, with minimal government intervention, in order to allow the strongest individuals to rise to the top and lead society
* believed that government interference in social and economic matters was counterproductive and hindered progress
* used to justify imperialism, racism, and class inequality

Women’s suffrage:  Suffragists v. Suffragettes

* Suffragists :
* Millicent Fawcett
* members of the women's suffrage movement who campaigned for the right to vote using peaceful and legal means
* organized public demonstrations and meetings, wrote letters to politicians, and lobbied for support from both men and women
* believed that women should be given the right to vote because they were equal citizens and deserved to have a say in how the country was governed
* Suffragettes :
* Pankhurst
* members of the women's suffrage movement who employed militant tactics such as arson, window smashing, and hunger strikes to draw attention to their cause
* argued that peaceful methods had failed to secure the vote for women, and that direct action was necessary to force the government to take notice
* Representation of the People Act : granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who met certain property qualifications
* Equal Franchise Act : giving all women over the age of 21 the right to vote on equal terms with men

Impressionism

* characterized by its focus on capturing the fleeting effects of light and color in the natural world
* Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas, rejected the traditional academic approach to painting, which emphasized precise rendering and carefully planned compositions
* favored loose brushwork, bold colors, and spontaneous techniques, often working en plein air (outdoors) to capture the changing light and atmosphere of a scene

Post-Impressionism

* interested in exploring the emotional and symbolic qualities of art, rather than just capturing the visual impressions of the world around them
* the use of bold, unnatural colors to convey emotions and moods
* more intellectual approach to art-making, with artists emphasizing the importance of structure, form, and composition
* laid the groundwork for the development of modern art
* Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Georges Seurat, and Paul Gauguin

Cubism

* Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, among others, and was characterized by its use of geometric shapes and fragmentation of form
* sought to break down the traditional rules of perspective and representation, and instead created compositions that depicted multiple viewpoints simultaneously
* objects were often depicted as if they were seen from different angles simultaneously, resulting in a fragmented, abstracted image
* goal was not to create a realistic depiction of the world, but rather to capture the essence of an object or scene in a new and innovative way
* reflected a broader shift towards modernity and a rejection of traditional values and hierarchies

Abstract painting

* began to experiment with new forms, materials, and techniques, and to explore the expressive potential of color, line, and form independent of any recognizable subject matter
* Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky is often credited with creating the first purely abstract painting in 1910, but other artists such as Kazimir Malevich and Piet Mondrian also played significant roles in the development of this new art form
* art should speak directly to the soul & to do so must avoid any reference to visual reality & concentrate on color

Causes of WWI

* Long-range :
* Militarism
* belief that a strong military is essential for national greatness and security
* Many countries, particularly Germany and Austria-Hungary, had been aggressively building up their military forces in the years leading up to the war, which created a sense of competition and tension among the major powers
* internal dissent
* political and social unrest within countries
* Many European countries had been struggling with political divisions and social problems, such as labor unrest and nationalist movements, which created instability and made it difficult to maintain peace
* nationalism
* strong sense of pride and loyalty to one's country
* Nationalistic sentiments often led to tensions and conflicts between countries, particularly in the Balkans where various ethnic groups were vying for independence and self-rule
* Immediate
* Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
* Austria-Hungary responded by issuing a harsh ultimatum to Serbia, and when Serbia refused to comply, Austria-Hungary declared war.
* “Blank Check” from William II (Germany)
* gave Austria-Hungary a "blank check" of support, which emboldened Austria-Hungary to take aggressive actions that ultimately led to the outbreak of war

Tension between U.K and Germany caused by

* Anglo-German Naval Arms Race
* competition between the two countries to build up their naval power and influence, particularly in the North Sea
* led to a buildup of resentment and fear between the two nations
* competition over colonies
* particularly in Africa, also fueled tensions between the UK and Germany, as both countries sought to expand their imperial holdings and influence
* evident during the Scramble for Africa
* German investment in the Balkans (“Blank Check”)
* indicating that it would support the latter's aggressive actions in the Balkans, including a potential war with Serbia

Mandates of WWI

* administered by the victorious Allied powers, including Britain, France, and Japan, following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I
* territories were previously held by the Ottoman Empire and were divided into several categories based on their level of development and readiness for self-government
* League of Nations:
* Woodrow Wilson
* established after the war, oversaw the mandates system and granted the mandates to the victorious powers to prepare the territories for eventual independence
* system was based on the idea of "civilizing" the territories and preparing them for self-rule
* Class A mandates were territories that were ready for self-rule
* Class B and C mandates were territories that required greater oversight and development
* Class B mandates were supposed to be prepared for self-rule within 25 years
* Class C mandates were not expected to be ready for self-rule for at least a generation
* mandates system was criticized for perpetuating colonialism and for not granting the territories full independence immediately

Treaty of Versailles, 1919

* one of the peace treaties that ended World War I


* imposed severe penalties on Germany, including the "War Guilt Clause," which forced Germany to accept full responsibility for starting the war
* Germany was required to pay reparations to the Allied powers, including a sum of 6.6 billion pounds in cash and 200 million pounds worth of goods
* reduced Germany's army to a maximum of 100,000 soldiers and limited its navy and air force
* forced to cede territories to the Allied powers, including Alsace-Lorraine, Eupen-Malmedy, Northern Schleswig, and the Polish Corridor
* established the League of Nations, an international organization aimed at preventing future wars
* harsh terms of the Treaty fueled resentment and anger in Germany, which contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the outbreak of World War II

Russian Revolutions

* Petrograd Soviet created b4 abdication
* February Revolution (St. Petersburg/Petrograd; Fed 23, 1917)
* primarily by women workers who were protesting food shortages, low wages, and the continuation of World War I, took to the streets
* demonstrations quickly spread to other cities, and the government soon lost control of the situation
* Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne, ending the Romanov dynasty that had ruled Russia for over 300 years (march 15, 1917)
* October Revolution (Bolsivik Rev)
* Led by the Bolshevik Party, headed by Vladimir Lenin, the revolutionaries seized control of key buildings and infrastructure in Petrograd
* quickly gained control of other cities, and by November, they had established a new government, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
* government was based on Marxist principles and led by Lenin and his associates
* treaty of brest litovsk :
* end russia’s partipation in WWI
* reconglize indpendence of Ukrian, Georgia, & Finland
* gave up Poland & Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia & Estonia to Germany & Austria Hungary

1905

* failed to overthrow Nicholas II but achieved some liberal reform (ie. Duma = legislative body).


* Nicholas curtailed those reforms only two years later.

March, 1917

* Nicholas II is forced to abdicate (step down) from the throne
* Power is given to the Provisional Gov’t and Soviet Petrograd
* Bolsheviks remained unsatisfied and demanded “Peace, Bread, Land”

October, 1917 (Bolshevik Revolution)

* Lenin led the Bolsheviks and replaced the Provisional Gov’t permanently, sparking the Russian Civil War

Russian Civil War

* “White Army” or imperialists v. Reds or Bolsheviks
* arose in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917, which brought the Bolsheviks to power and marked the beginning of Soviet Russia
* Bolsheviks won and established one-party rule in the Soviet Union.

Balfour Declaration

* stated that the British government viewed "with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people" and pledged to use its best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this objective
* important milestone in the Zionist movement and played a significant role in the eventual establishment of the state of Israel in 1948
* created tensions between Jewish and Arab communities in Palestine, as both groups laid claim to the land

President Wilson’s Fourteen Points

* set of principles he presented in a speech to the US Congress in January 1918, during World War I
* points were intended to be a blueprint for peace negotiations and to provide a basis for a new international order after the war
* first five points dealt with general principles of international conduct, such as the renunciation of secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade, and the reduction of armaments
* next eight points focused on specific territorial issues, such as the redrawing of borders in Europe and the creation of new states, based on the principle of self-determination of peoples
* proposed the establishment of an international organization to ensure cooperation between nations and prevent future wars
* eventually led to the creation of the League of Nations
* widely acclaimed in Europe, and helped to inspire the hope that a lasting peace could be achieved after the war

outcomes of WWI

* Treaty of Versailles: This treaty ended the war and imposed harsh reparations on Germany, including the War Guilt Clause, which forced Germany to accept full responsibility for the war and pay heavy reparations.
* League of Nations: This international organization was established to promote peace and cooperation among nations and prevent future wars
* collapse of empires: The war led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires, leading to the emergence of new nations and the redrawing of national borders
* rise of the United States as a world power: The war catapulted the US into a position of global leadership, with President Wilson playing a key role in the formation of the League of Nations
* Russian Revolution: The war played a significant role in the collapse of the Russian Empire and the rise of communism, leading to the establishment of the Soviet Union.
* Advances in technology and warfare: The war saw the development of new military technologies, such as the tank, airplane, and chemical warfare, which would go on to shape warfare in the 20th century
* Economic and social upheaval: The war led to massive social and economic changes, including inflation, labor strikes, and the rise of women's suffrage movements.
* The rise of nationalism: The war fueled nationalism and led to the emergence of new nation-states, particularly in Europe