Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

These flashcards cover essential concepts in anatomy and physiology based on the provided lecture notes.

What is Anatomy?

The study of structure and form of the body.

What is Physiology?

The study of the function of the body.

Why is studying anatomy and physiology important?

It provides a basis for understanding diseases and how the body works and responds to stimuli.

What are the structural levels of the body?

Chemical level, Cellular level, Tissue level, Organ level, Organ system level, Organism level.

What is homeostasis?

The maintenance of a constant internal environment.

What are the components of homeostasis?

Control center (brain, set point), Receptor (detects changes), Effector (responds to change).

What is a negative feedback system?

A mechanism that regulates homeostasis, such as blood pressure.

What is a positive feedback system?

A mechanism where deviation from the set point becomes greater.

What is the anatomical position?

A person standing erect with face and palms facing forwards.

What is the axial region of the body?

Head, neck, and trunk (thorax, abdomen, pelvis).

What is the appendicular region of the body?

Appendages or extremities.

Define supine and prone positions.

Supine is lying face up; Prone is lying face down.

Define superior and inferior in anatomical terms.

Superior means above; Inferior means below.

Define anterior and posterior.

Anterior means front; Posterior means back.

Define medial and lateral.

Medial means close to midline; Lateral means away from midline.

Define proximal and distal.

Proximal means close to attachment; Distal means far from attachment.

Define superficial and deep.

Superficial means close to surface; Deep means toward the interior of the body.

What is the sagittal plane?

Runs vertically to separate the body into left and right.

What is the midsagittal plane?

Runs down the middle to divide the body into equal left and right halves.

What is the transverse plane?

Runs horizontally to separate the body into superior and inferior sections.

What is the frontal plane?

Runs vertically to separate the body into anterior and posterior sections.

What organs are found in the cranial cavity?

The brain.

What organs are found in the vertebral cavity?

The spinal cord.

What cavities are within the thoracic cavity?

Pleura and pericardial cavities.

What organs are housed in the pleural cavity?

The lungs.

What organs are located in the pericardial cavity?

The heart.

What organs are in the abdominopelvic cavity?

Digestive organs, spleen, kidneys, bladder, rectum, reproductive organs.

What are the four abdominopelvic body quadrants?

Right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left lower quadrant.

What are the six abdominopelvic body regions?

Right hypochondriac, left hypochondriac, epigastric, right lumbar, left lumbar, umbilical.

What is the difference between visceral and parietal membranes?

Parietal lines the cavity wall; Visceral covers the organ itself.

What is a serous cavity?

A cavity containing both parietal and visceral layers.

What are the five steps of the scientific method?

Make observation, form a hypothesis, conduct experiments, analyze data, draw conclusions.

Define matter and mass.

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass; Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

What is energy?

The capacity to do work; includes chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant energy.

What is kinetic energy?

Energy in action.

What is potential energy?

Stored energy.

Define elements and atoms.

Element is the simplest form of matter, composed of only one kind of atom; Atom is the smallest particle of an element.

What are free radicals?

Atoms or molecules with one or more unpaired electrons.

Define protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Protons are positively charged and found in the nucleus; Neutrons are neutral and found in the nucleus; Electrons are negatively charged and found outside the nucleus.

What is atomic number?

The number of protons in an atom.

What is mass number?

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

What are isotopes?

Atoms with the same atomic number but different numbers of neutrons.

What is atomic weight?

The average weight of all isotopes of an element.

What are chemical bonds?

Interactions where atoms combine by transferring or sharing electrons.

When are atoms considered stable?

When they have reached the maximum number of electrons they can hold.

What is ionic bonding?

Attraction between two oppositely charged ions.

What is an ion?

A charged particle that has gained or lost electrons.

What is covalent bonding?

Atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to fill outer electron shells.

What is the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonding?

Polar bonds involve unequal sharing of electrons; Nonpolar bonds involve equal sharing.

What is hydrogen bonding?

Attractive forces between polar molecules with distinct positive and negative ends.

What is a molecular formula?

It represents the number and type of atoms in a molecule.

What are chemical reactions?

The formation, rearrangement, or breaking of chemical bonds.

What are reactants and products in a chemical equation?

Reactants are substances put into a reaction; Products are the end result of the reaction.

What are the key properties of water?

Excellent solvent, liquid at body temperature, absorbs and holds heat energy, and participates in essential chemical reactions.

What is the difference between solvents, solutes, and solutions?

Solvent is the liquid in which substances dissolve; Solute is any dissolved substance; Solution is the combination of solute and solvent.

What is a synthesis reaction?

A reaction that combines two or more reactants to form a larger, more complex molecule.

What is a decomposition reaction?

A reaction that breaks down reactants into smaller, less complex molecules.

What is an exchange reaction?

A combination of synthesis and decomposition reactions.

What is a reversible reaction?

A reaction where products can change back to reactants.

When is a substance considered an acid, base, or neutral?

Acids release H+ (pH below 7); Bases take up H+ (pH above 7); Neutral has a pH of 7.

What is inorganic chemistry?

The study of substances that do not contain carbon.

What is organic chemistry?

The study of substances that contain carbon, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

What are the characteristics of carbohydrates?

Contains C, H, O in a 1:2:1 ratio.

What are the three types of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides (simple sugars), Disaccharides (two monosaccharides joined), Polysaccharides (many monosaccharides joined).

What are the building blocks of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides.

What are the functions of carbohydrates?

Short-term energy storage, converted to glucose quickly, glucose is used to make ATP, brain cells require glucose.

What are the characteristics of lipids?

Contains C, H, O with a ratio of 2:1 and are insoluble in water.

What are the building blocks of lipids?

Fatty acids and glycerol.

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated lipids?

Saturated have only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms; Unsaturated have one or more double covalent bonds.

What are the functions of lipids?

Long-term energy storage, insulation against heat loss, protective cushions for organs, and cholesterol is part of cell membrane structure.

What are the characteristics of proteins?

Contains C, H, O, N; building blocks are amino acids (20 different amino acids).

What are the building blocks of proteins?

Amino acids.

What are the functions of proteins?

Used to make skin, hair, nails, and muscles; Hemoglobin; act as enzymes; play roles in the immune system and muscle contractions.

What are the two types of nucleic acids?

DNA (stores genetic information) and RNA (functions in protein synthesis).

What are the building blocks of nucleic acids?

Nitrogenous bases, pentose sugars, and phosphate groups.

What is ATP?

The direct energy source for all living things and their cellular activities.

When is the energy in ATP released?

When the 3rd phosphate bond is broken, ADP forms and energy is released.

What are enzymes?

Proteins that function as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions.

What are the four parts to the cellular basis of life?

1) All living things are made up of cells. 2) All cells arise from other cells. 3) All chemical reactions take place within cells. 4) Cells contain hereditary information that is passed from one generation to the next.

What is the plasma membrane?

The outermost component of a cell, forming the boundary between extracellular and intracellular components.

What are the functions of the plasma membrane?

Acts as a selective barrier, aids in communication between cells, and encloses the cytoplasm.

What is extracellular material?

Material that exists outside of cells.

What is intracellular material?

Material that exists inside of cells.

Describe the structure of a cell membrane.

Consists of a double phospholipid layer with polar and nonpolar regions, cholesterol, and proteins.

What is the cytoplasm?

A clear jelly-like substance that holds organelles within the cell.

What is the cytoskeleton?

A supportive network within the cytoplasm made of microfilaments and microtubules.

What are organelles?

Specialized structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific cell functions.

What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?

Rough ER produces proteins due to ribosomes; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

What are ribosomes?

Cellular structures that synthesize proteins, either attached to the ER or free in the cytoplasm.

What is the Golgi Apparatus?

Flattened sacs that package and distribute proteins and lipids within the cell.

What are mitochondria?

Organelles responsible for producing ATP and are located in the cytoplasm.

What are lysosomes?

Organelles that contain enzymes for digesting foreign materials.

What are vesicles?

Membranous structures that store materials within the cell.

What are centrosomes?

Cytoplasmic structures that include centrioles and are involved in cell division.

Describe the function of the nucleus and its parts (nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleolus, chromatin, chromosomes).

The nucleus stores genetic information and controls cellular activities. The nuclear envelope surrounds it, nuclear pores regulate material exchange, the nucleolus is involved in ribosome production, chromatin consists of DNA and proteins, and chromosomes are condensed DNA structures during cell division.