APSC 3064 Test Two

What is the difference between stretching and pandiculation?

Stretching: passive, just pulling on muscles, no brain involvement Pandiculation: active, increases sensation and awareness of muscles, brain is involved

Smooth muscle

Involuntary, no striations, peristalsis, walls of visceral organs, blood vessels and respiratory passageways, diffuse junctions, centrally located nucleus

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary, striated, one nucleus per cell, intercalated disks

Skeletal muscle

Voluntary, striated, multinucleated, attached to bones, causes movement at joints

What is the difference between pacemaker cells and myocytes?

Pacemaker cells: Produce electrical impulses to initiate heartbeat

Myocytes: Contractile cells

Identify and discuss megaesophagus in dogs and cats

Dilation of the esophagus, when it has lost its muscle tone. Animal won’t get adequate nutrition. Risks for aspiration pneumonia (life threatening)

Identify and discuss myopathies and myositis.

Myopathies: Diseases that cause damage to muscles/muscle tissue

Myositis: inflammatory reaction in muscle

Polymyositis

Affects entire body, associated with immune-mediated disorders

(MMM) Masticatory muscle myositis

Inflammatory condition that affects muscles used to chew. Inability to open mouth or eat.

Atrioventricular valves (A-V)

Opens and closes between atriums and ventricles

Tricuspid (right), Mitral (left)

Semilunar valves

Opens and closes between ventricles and pulmonary artery & aorta

Aortic, Pulmonary

Pericardium

Membrane inclosing the heart

Atria

Smaller chambers of the heart, pumps into ventricles

Ventricles

Larger chambers of the heart, pumps into aorta or pulmonary valve

Heart sounds

“Lub”: First sound, ventricles contract, A-V valves close

“Dub”: Second sound, ventricles relax, semilunar valves close

Heart murmurs

Any abnormal heart sounds, “shh” sounds associated with valve disorders

(MVI) Mitral Valve Insufficiency

Mitral regurgitation, valves can’t close properly, associated with heart murmur

(DCM) Canine Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Decreased ability to generate pressure to pump blood, due to nutritional, infection, and genetic factors. Dilation of the ventricles with ventricular wall thinning.

(HCM) Feline Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

Muscular walls thicken, decreasing volume in heart chamber and abnormal relaxation of muscle

(ECG) Electrocardiogram

Records fluctuations in body surface electrical potential from due to pacemaker and conduction cells in the heart.

Sinus Arrythmia

Naturally occurring variation in heart rate, rate rises on inspiration, slows on expiration, common in dogs, uncommon in cats

What is heart rate controlled by

Metabolic rate and hormones

Blood pressure

Force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels

Blood pressure values

Systolic (max) pressure: 110-160 mmHg

Diastolic (min) pressure: 60-90 mmHg

What is dog cats nutrition largely based off of

Life stage

Unqualified term (Beef, Tuna, etc)

Ingredients must be at least 95% of total weight w/o water, and 70% total weight with water.

Qualifier (dinner, platter, entree, formula, etc)

Ingredients must be at least 26% of total weight w/o water, and 10% total weight with water

“With…” in pet food

Ingredient must be at least 3% of total product

“Flavor” in pet food

No minimum percentage, usually less than 3%

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Energy required to maintain homeostasis/survive without moving in a thermoneutral environment. Largely hypothetical

Maintenance energy requirement (MER)

Energy required to support energy equilibrium over a long period of time, (ME intake = heat production)

Daily energy requirement (DER)

Energy required to support energy equilibrium with other factors (standing, walking, playing…)

How to calculate DER (daily energy requirement)

Adjusted BMR since it is the sum of breed, neuter status, age, daily activity, environment temp, etc.

Ideal protein requirements for dogs

1.7g protein/kg BW^0.75

Average quality (plant) protein requirements for dogs

2.1-2.5g protein/kg BW^0.75

Fat requirements of young adult dogs

10-20% DM

Fat requirements for obese-prone adult dogs

7-10% DM

Fiber requirements of dogs

<5% DM

Fiber requirements for obese dogs

>10% DM

Energy requirements for active neutered cats

1.2 x BMR

Energy requirements for active intact cats

1.4-1.6 x BMR

Energy requirements for minimally active cats

1.0 x BMR

Protein requirements for cats (NRC)

16% of DM, must have arginine, taurine, methionine, and cysteine

Fat requirements for cats

9% of DM

Fiber requirements of cats

<5% DM

Bicornuate

1 vagina, cervix, and uterine body. 2 uterine horns

Dogs and Cats

Duplex

1-2 vaginas, 2 uterine horns, cervixes

Rabbit, mouse, opossum

Diffuse

Placenta covers most of the surface

Horses, pigs

Cotyledonary

Placenta is multiple, discrete areas

Ruminants

Zonary

Plancenta is complete/incomplete band

Dogs, cats, seals bears, elephats

Discoid

Placenta is discrete disc shape

Primates, rodents

Mammary glands in cats

4 pairs (2 thoracic, 2 abdominal)

Mammary glands in large dogs

6 pairs

Mammary glands in small dogs

4 pairs

Puberty in small dogs

6-10 months

Puberty in large dogs

18-24 months

How many ova are released during ovulation in small dogs

2-10 ova

How many ova are released during ovulation in large dogs

5-20 ova

When does ovulation occur in dogs

Spontaneous ovulation based on hormonal environment.

Monoestrus

Dogs, one estrus during breeding season

When is the most fertile period for dogs

4-7 days after LH peak

How to recognize estrous cycle in dogs

Sexual behavior, physical signs, vaginal cytology

Estrous cycle for pregnant dog

Proestrus (vulva swollen, bloody discharge, attracted to male but doesn’t mate), Estrus (accepts male, straw-colored discharge), Metestrus/Diestrus (pregnancy and parturition), Anestrus (sexual inactivity)

Estrous cycle for nonpregnant dog

Proestrus (vulva swollen, bloody discharge, attracted to male but doesn’t mate), Estrus (accepts male, straw-colored discharge), Metestrus/Diestrus (False pregnancy), Anestrus (sexual inactivity)

Puberty for short haired vs long-haired cats

Short haired: Occurs earlier

Long haired: Occurs later

Seasonally polyestrous

Multiple estrus cycles during breeding season

Induced Ovulation

In cats, queen ovulates at any time during heat

Reproductive cycle for cat if not bred

Enter interfollicular stage (interestrus) for ~1 week, then goes into estrus again

Reproductive cycle for cat if mated but not pregnant

Diestrus stage (~5-7 weeks), may appear pregnant.

Reproductive cycle for cat if mated successfully

Goes through gestation.

Reproductive cycle of cat

Anestrus (during winter, no heat cycle), Proestrus (1-2 days, vocal female but won’t mate), Estrus (~week, occurs every 17 days if not pregnant, displays lordosis)

Gestation period for dogs

50-60 days

Gestation period for cats

~63 days

Superfecundation

Litters sired by more than one father. Two or more ova from the same cycle were fertilized by sperm from a different male.

Superfetation

Estrus during gestation produces two litters in the same cat. Usually the second litter is too young to survive at birth.

Male dog reproduction system

Sperm produces throughout the year, testes descend few days after birth. Bulbus glandis acts as a tie during mating.

Male cat reproduction system

Penis positioned slightly downward and caudally, penis covered in tiny barbs to stimulate female’s reproductive tract.

Dog mating behavior

Due to hormonal detection of ovulation, courtship length variable, male licks vulva, female stands with tail to one side

Cat mating behavior

Females mate multiple times in a cycle, four matings required to induce ovulation, females aggressive to males immediately after mating.

Pseudopregancy

In dogs and cats, occurs at end of diestrus, same symptoms as pregnant animal, in cats occurs when ovulation is induced but didn’t conceive, treatment not recommended (will go away on its own)

Pyometra

In dogs and cats, hyperplasia and hypertrophy of endometrial glands of the uterus. Lining thickens to cysts if pregnancy doesn’t occur for several cycles. In dogs more than 5 years old. Hard to observe in cats until late stages due to grooming.

Eclampsia

Hypocalcemia (low calcium levels), during peak lactation, life threatening, symptoms are tremors, weakness and a form of paralysis.

Myostatin Gene (MSTN)

Growth differentiation factor, limits skeletal muscle growth

Effects of a mutation of myostatin gene

Little to no production of myostatin protein, less inhibition of muscle growth

Homozygote animals with MSTN mutations

Have significantly increased muscle mass

Hemophilia A

Common genetic coagulation disorder

Cause of Hemophilia A

Spontaneous mutation of F8 gene which provides instructions for Coagulation factor VIII (responsible for normal formation of blood clots.)

Symptoms of Hemophilia A

Spontaneous bleeding in skin causing bruising, excessive bleeding from minor injuries, bleeding into chest cavity/abdomen. Diagnosed by measuring amount of Factor VIII.

How is Hemophilia A inherited

F8 gene is sex-linked on X chromosome. Males have one factor 8 gene, females have two factor 8 genes.

How can Hemophilia A be treated/prevented

Avoid breeding of carriers and test potential carriers.

Differences of lungs between dogs and cats

Left lung: dogs-2 lobes, cats-3 lobes

Right lung: dogs and cats-4 lobes

Upper respiratory tract identification

Nasal cavities, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea

Lower respiratory tract identification

Bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

Upper respiratory tract function

Trap microorganisms/contaminants, heat up/moisturize air

Lower respiratory tract function

Gas exchange

Mucociliary escalator

Made up of upwards moving cilia covered in a mucus layer. Contaminants get trapped in the mucus layer and are moved up and out of lungs.

Respiratory system regulation

By nervous system through chemoreceptors, blood pH, and changes in lung volume (stretching receptors). Sometimes regulated consciously.

Ventilation

Process in which air moves in and out of the lungs and is made available for gas exchange.

Normal breathing rate in dogs

10-30 breaths/min

Normal breathing rate in cats

20-30 breaths/min