AP Psych Unit 2

biological psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information from other cells

cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

Axon

A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

terminal branches

The branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters.

terminal buttons

Small knobs at the end of axons that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters

action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

resting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

brain lesion

experimentally destroys brain tissue to study animal behaviors after such destruction

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.

Medulla

an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

nucleus accumbens

structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

central nervous system

made up of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.

somatic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Nature vs. Nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

split brain theory

-Split brain patients are unable to integrate and transfer information from one hemisphere to the other.
-The left hemisphere contains our 'speech centre' and the right hemisphere is non-verbal.

Seizures

1. The sudden attack or recurrence of a disease
2. A single episode of epilepsy, often named for the type it represents

Callostomies (Split Brain Operation)

Right and left hemisphere disconnected

left vs right hemisphere

-Left hemisphere is good at making quick, exact interpretations of language
-Right hemisphere excels in making inferences, modulating speech, and facilitating self-awareness

Michael Gazzaniga

split-brain research; understanding of functional lateralization in the brain; how the cerebral hemispheres communicate

Roger Sperry

like Gazzaniga, studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions

brain plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

consciousness

a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

sleep spindles

short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

beta waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG that represent a state of fully alert wakefulness; smaller and faster brain waves typically indicating mental activity

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

theta waves

brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep

NREM sleep

Quiet, typically dreamless sleep in which rapid eye movements are absent; divided into four stages; also called quiet sleep.

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Dreaming

a mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery

lucid dreams

Dreams in which people can think clearly about the circumstances of waking life and the fact that they are dreaming, yet they remain asleep in the midst of a vivid dream.

sleep stages

relaxed stage (alpha waves)
stage 1 (early sleep) (hallucinations)
stage 2 (sleep spindles - bursts of activity) (sleep talk)
stage 3 (transition phase) (delta waves)
stage 4 (delta waves) (sleepwalk/talk + wet the bed)
stage 5 (REM) (sensory-rich dreams) (paradoxical sleep)

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

pineal gland

produces melatonin

Freud's wish-fulfillment theory

Dreams provide a "psychic safety valve"—expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content—a hidden meaning.

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

id, ego, superego

Freud said that there was conscious, which you could control, and the subconscious. He said that the Id was living in the subconscious was just had primordial desires that wanted stuff like food and sex. Then there was the Superego that did not want pleasures of love, and was just pure intellect and rationality. The ego is the middle ground, the referee between the two different things, Id and Superego. All of this is going on the subconscious.

activation-synthesis theory

theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story

information processing theory

a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

Insomina

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apena

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

night terrors

sleep disruptions that occur during Stage IV of sleep, involving screaming, panic, or confusion

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

dependence

the condition that results when the brain develops a chemical need for a drug and cannot function normally without it

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

near-death experience (NDE)

experience reported by people who've nearly died or thought they were going to die

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations