Biology 101

Biology

The scientific study of life.

Extant

The current evolutionary form of a species.

Courtship Rituals

Behavior and traits that a species looks for that confirms positive genetic procession.

Artificial Selection

The selective breeding of animals, plants, etc.

What does DNA stand for?

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

What does Adenine pair with in DNA?

Thymine

What does Cytosine pair with in DNA?

Guanine

Gene

A functional unit of DNA

What are genes transcribed into?

RNA

What does RNA do?

It instructs the cell on how to piece together amino acid chains, which make proteins.

Protein Synthesis

DNA → RNA → Amino Acid Chain → Protein

Describe the glucose control process.

1) High blood glucose signal

2) Pancreas releases insulin

3) Insulin binding stimulates cells to absorb glucose

4) Normal blood glucose level tells body to stop producing insulin.

Ionic Bond

The transferring of electrons from one atom to another changes the charge of the atom and forms an ____

Covalent Bond

The sharing of electrons between atoms forms a ____

Non-Polar Covalent Bond

The __**EQUAL**__ sharing of electrons between atoms forms a ____

Polar Covalent Bond

In this bond, electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom in the bond.

Hydrogen Bond

Not a traditional bond, but more of a strong attraction. Form very easily, but they also break very easily.

Ion

An atom or molecule with an electrical charge resulting from the gain or loss of one or more electrons.

Cohesion

The tendency of like molecules to stick together. (surface tension of water)

Adhesion

The clinging of one substance to another. (water droplets to a plant)

Thermal Energy

The energy associated with the random movement of atoms and molecules.

Heat

The transfer of thermal energy from a warm body of matter to a cooler one.

Temperature

The measurement of heat intensity.

Evaporative Cooling

A substance evaporates and the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down.

Solution

A liquid consisting of a uniform mixture of two or more substances.

Solvent

A dissolving agent.

Solutes

Dissolve when water molecules surround them.

pH Scale

Describes how acidic or basic a solution is.

Buffer

Minimizes changes in pH.

Organic Compounds

Compounds built off of a carbon backbone.

Isomer

Compounds with the same molecular formula, but a different chemical structure.

Hydrocarbons

Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen.

Structural Isomers

Isomers with completely different structure.

Geometric Isomers

Isomers with the same structure, but different spatial arrangement of atoms.

Enantiomers

Isomers that are mirror images of one another. Like left and right hands.

Hydrophilic

Having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.

Hydrophobic

Tending to repel or failing to mix with water.

Functional Groups

Give organic molecules specific properties.

OH

Hydroxyl Group

C = O

Carbonyl Group

COOH

Carboxyl Group

NH2

Amino Group

O = PO3 2-

Phosphate Group

CH3

Methyl Group

Macromolecules

Large biomolecules.

Polymers

Another term for macromolecules, because they are made up of multiple monomers.

Monomers

The building blocks of polymers.

Dehydration Reaction (Condensation Reaction)

The process that links monomers together to form polymers. H2O is formed as a side product.

Hydrolysis

The process that breaks polymers apart. H2O is broken apart.

Carbohydrates

Range from small sugar molecules to large polysaccharides.

CH2O

Monosaccharides contain multiple of this formula. Also contains hydroxyl groups and a carbonyl group.

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 → C12H22O11 + H2O

Dehydration Reaction Stoichiometry

Disaccharide

Formed by two monomers through a dehydration reaction.

Starch

A polysaccharide used for energy storage consisting of a single, long strand of connected glucose monomers. Found abundantly in potatoes.

Glycogen

A polysaccharide used for energy storage consisting of multiple strands of glucose monomers wound up into fibers. Found in muscle tissue.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide used for structural integrity consisting of multiple strands of glucose monomers, held close to each other by hydrogen bonds and wound tightly into fibers. Found in plant cell walls.

Lipids

A diverse, hydrophobic compound composed largely of carbon hydrogen.

Fats (Triglycerides)

A glycerol molecule linked to three fatty acid tails.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A fat with one or more double carbon=carbon bond, which is formed when the fat has less than its maximum amount of hydrogen. Typically found in plant oils.

Saturated Fatty Acids

A fat with the maximum amount of hydrogens. No carbon=carbon double bonds. Typically found in animal fats.

Trans Fats

The process of hydrogenation, or when unsaturated fat is converted to saturated fat by adding hydrogen, creates this.

Phospholipids

Components of cell membranes.

Steroids

Includes cholesterol and some hormones such as Testosterone.

Cholesterol

A common component in animal cell membranes and is the precursor for making steroids.

Amphipathic

The property of being hydrophobic and hydrophilic at the same time. Phospholipid heads are a good example. The heads are hydrophilic and this is why they aim towards the outside and inside of the cell. The tails are hydrophobic which is why they aim away from the outside and inside of cells.

Proteins

Involved in nearly every dynamic function in your body and are extremely diverse in their structure and purpose.

Protein Functions

\-Enzymes

\-Transport proteins embedded in cell membranes

\-Antibodies for immune defense

\-Signal through hormones

\-Receptors

\-Contractile proteins found in muscle cells

\-Structural proteins such as collagen

\-Storage

Amino Acids

Proteins are made from different arrangements of these 20 different monomers.

Denaturation

The protein unravels, loses its specific shape, and loses its function within the body.

Composition of Amino Acids

__**ALL ARE ATTACHED TO A CENTRAL CARBON**__

\-An amino group

\-A carboxyl group

\-An H atom

\-An R group

What is the R group?

This represents the amino acid that bonds to the central carbon and dictates the identification of the amino acid as a whole.

How are amino acid monomers linked together?

They are linked together through dehydration reactions.

What happens during the linking together of amino acid monomers?

The carboxyl group of one amino acid joins to the amino group of the next amino acid.

Peptide Bond

The binding of amino acid monomers.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acid monomers.

What is this?

An amino acid monomer.

Primary Structure of a Protein

The sequence of amino acid monomers in its polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure of a Protein

The coiling or folding of the polypeptide chain, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary Structure of a Protein

The overall 3D shape of a polypeptide, resulting from interactions among R groups.

Quaternary Structure of a Protein

It is the association of several protein chains or subunits into a closely packed arrangement. This is only relevant to proteins that have more than one polypeptide, such as Hemoglobin.

Alpha Helix

The term for when hydrogen bonds in a polypeptide chain pull a portion of the amino acid monomers into a helix.

Beta Pleated Sheets

The term for when hydrogen bonds within a polypeptide chain form into a straight, flat, pleated sheets of amino acid monomers.

Nucleotides

Monomers that make up nucleic acids in DNA.

What are nucleotides composed of?

The are composed of a sugar, a phosphate group (which provide structure), and finally a nitrogenous base (which forms connections with other nitrogenous bases).

What does RNA look like?

It is made of a single polynucleotide chain.

What is the function of DNA and RNA?

They serve as blueprints for proteins and control the life of the cell. They are the brain of the cell.

What does *cellulae* mean?

Little rooms.

Purpose of the Light Microscope:

Display living cells.

What is the advantage of a SEM (scanning electron microscope)?

It provides a very detailed surface image of the subject.

What is the advantage of a TEM (transmission electron microscope)?

It provides a very detailed image of of the inner structures of the subject.

Cell Theory states:

\-All living things are made up of cells.

\-All cells come from other cells.

What is the plasma membrane?

A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Explain what proteins do within the phospholipid bilayer:

\-They form channels that shield ions and other hydrophilic molecules as they pass through the hydrophobic center of the membrane.

\-They also can serve as pumps, using the cell’s energy to transport molecules in or out of the cell.

Cytosol

The fluid in which the cell’s organelles “float”.

Prokaryotic Cells

\-No nucleus.

\-DNA is dispersed throughout the cell body.

Eukaryotic Cells

\-Nucleus.

\-Many membrane-enclosed organelles that perform specific functions.

Organelles

Compartmentalize a cell’s activities.

Function of the Nucleus

It houses the cell’s DNA, which directs protein synthesis.

Function of the Ribosomes

Composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins, they synthesize proteins according to directions from DNA.

Mitochondria

Organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells.