Key Terms in Moral Philosophy: Ethics, Virtue, and Meta-Ethics

Act-based

A normative ethical theory that focuses on what makes an action right or wrong.

Agent-based

A normative ethical theory that focuses on what makes a person good or bad.

Applied ethics

One of the four questions we consider in the applied ethics section of the course.

Moral anti-realism

The meta-ethical theory that there is no such thing as objective goodness, badness, rightness, wrongness, etc.

Aretē

The Greek word for virtue or 'excellence.'

Aristotle

The key virtue ethicist we look at in this course and probably the most influential philosopher who ever lived.

Aristotle's theory of moral responsibility

When are we morally responsible for something we have done? Aristotle assesses actions as voluntary, involuntary, or non-voluntary.

Voluntary actions

Actions done deliberately and with full knowledge of what one is doing.

Involuntary actions

Actions that are not voluntary and are regretted.

Non-voluntary actions

Actions that are not voluntary and are not regretted.

Ayer, A.J.

An emotivist meta-ethicist who argues that moral language expresses emotional reactions rather than evaluations.

Autonomy

Acting according to a command given to oneself rather than following desires or external rules.

Axe murderer example

A problem for Kant's deontology illustrating the extreme view that lying is always wrong.

Bad

Opposite of good; something is bad if we ought to judge it negatively.

Bentham, Jeremy

The first of the two major utilitarian philosophers in this course, known for quantitative hedonistic utilitarianism.

Utility calculus

A method developed by Bentham to calculate the utility of actions.

Problems with calculation

Criticism of utilitarianism that argues it is practically impossible to calculate whether an action will maximize utility.

Categorical Imperative

A key idea in Kant's deontology that dictates that lying is always wrong.

Catharsis

Experiencing intense emotions through art can help achieve better emotional self-control.

Certainty

A likely pleasure is better than an unlikely pleasure, and an unlikely pain is better than a likely pain.

Circularity, problem of

A criticism of virtue ethics that it cannot provide useful guidance on how to act.

Clashing duties, problem of

A problem for Kant's deontology where two different duties cannot be followed at the same time.

Arguments from queerness

A type of argument in moral philosophy that challenges the existence of objective moral properties.

Argument from relativity

A type of argument that suggests moral truths are not absolute but vary across cultures.

Moral realism

The view that there are mind-independent moral properties/facts.

Emotivism

The meta-ethical view that moral statements express emotional responses rather than factual claims.

Verificationism

A philosophical theory that asserts a statement is only meaningful if it can be verified.

Clashing virtues

The problem of conflicting virtues in ethical decision-making.

Perfect vs perfect

A clash between the perfect duty not to lie and the perfect duty to keep promises.

Perfect vs imperfect

A clash between the perfect duty not to steal and the imperfect duty to save lives.

Imperfect vs imperfect

A clash between the imperfect duty to learn and the imperfect duty to stay healthy.

Virtue ethics

An ethical theory that emphasizes acting according to all virtues.

Moral dilemma

A situation where virtue ethics may not provide clear guidance.

Cognitivism, moral

The view that moral statements have cognitive meaning.

Contradiction in conception

A violation of Kant's categorical imperative where a maxim cannot be imagined universally.

Contradiction in will

A violation of the categorical imperative where a maxim can be imagined but is undesirable.

Consequentialism

An act-based normative ethical theory focused on the consequences of actions.

Deontology

An act-based normative ethical theory that emphasizes strict moral rules.

Contingent

Something that could have been otherwise.

Necessary

Truths that could never have been different.

Descriptive

Claims about facts, regardless of their truthfulness.

Duty

Something that should be done regardless of consequences.

Duty, acting in accordance with

Doing the right thing for contingent reasons.

Duty, acting out of

Doing the right thing because it is right.

Duty, imperfect

A duty generally followed but can be overridden by more important duties.

Duty, perfect

A duty that should never be broken, regardless of circumstances.

Eating animals

A topic of ethical debate in virtue ethics.

Duration

One of the criteria in Bentham's utility calculus regarding the length of pleasure.

Cora Diamond

A philosopher who provides a virtue-ethical argument against eating animals.

J.S. Mill's qualitative hedonistic utilitarianism

Distinguishes between higher pleasures and lower pleasures.

Mackie's error theory

A cognitivist version of anti-realism.

Kant's deontology

A radical view that consequences do not affect the morality of actions.

Perfect Duty

A duty not to do anything that produces a contradiction in conception when universalised.

Eudaimonia

An ancient Greek word translated as 'happiness,' 'flourishing,' or 'excellence,' representing a life lived in accordance with virtues.

Ergon

The Ancient Greek word for 'function,' important in Aristotle's virtue ethics.

Error Theory

An anti-realist, cognitivist meta-ethical theory developed by J.L. Mackie, arguing that all normative moral statements are false.

Descriptive Ethics

The study of how people actually deal with moral dilemmas and debates in their lives.

Normative Ethics

The study of what makes an action or a person good or bad, right or wrong.

Evaluation

Judging or weighing up whether something is good or bad.

Experience Machine

A thought experiment by Robert Nozick questioning hedonistic utilitarianism by asking if one would choose a simulated happy life.

Felicific Calculus

One of the seven criteria in Bentham's utility calculus, focusing on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

Fairness Problem

A problem for utilitarianism regarding the treatment of individuals fairly while maximizing utility.

Fallacy of Composition

A logical fallacy assuming that what is true for parts of a group is true for the whole group.

Fallacy of Equivocation

A logical fallacy where a word with multiple meanings is used inconsistently in an argument.

Good

The standard of evaluation; if something is good, it should be judged positively.

Good Will

For Kant, a good will is one that acts out of duty and does the right thing because it is right.

Function Argument

Aristotle's argument that human beings have a purpose supported by their distinctive functions.

Moral Psychology

A part of descriptive ethics focusing on how people think and feel about moral issues.

Hypothetical Imperatives

Moral imperatives that are conditional and depend on personal desires or goals.

Categorical Imperatives

Moral imperatives that are unconditional and must be followed regardless of personal desires.

Utilitarianism

An ethical theory that suggests actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Normative Claim

A claim about what ought to be the case, such as 'murder is wrong.'

Descriptive Claim

A claim about how things are, such as 'most people think that murder is wrong.'

Practical Wisdom

The ability to make sound judgments and decisions in ethical situations.

Intrinsic Value

The value that something has in itself, as opposed to its utility or usefulness.

Moral Statements

Statements that express judgments about what is right or wrong.