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Decadence
A period of decline or deterioration of art or literature that follows an era of great achievement.
Decadent Movement
A late 19th-century artistic and literary movement, largely centred in Western Europe, that followed an aesthetic ideology of excess and artificiality. Characterised by self-disgust, sickness at the world, general scepticism, delight in perversion and employment of crude humour and a belief in the superiority of human creativity over logic and the natural world.
Max Nordau
In his book degeneration, he blamed overstimulation for both individual and national deterioration. According to him, male and female nervous complaints and the increasingly bizarre art world reflecting a general downturn in the human species.
Darwinism
The doctrine that natural selection has been the prime cause of evolution of higher forms. Disintegrated the formerly held belief that man was distinct from animal.
Eugenics Movement
A campaign that sought to improve the quality of humankind through carefully controlled selective breeding. Later associated with Nazism.
Boer War
Lasting from 1899 to 1902, Dutch colonists and the British competed for control of territory in South Africa.
Scramble for Africa
Sudden wave of conquests in Africa by European powers in the 1880s and 1890s. Britain obtained most of eastern Africa, France most of northwestern Africa. Other countries (Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain) acquired lesser amounts.
Colonialism
Attempt by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory.
Fear of invasion
Great Britain had the biggest navy in the world in the 19th century but new technologies made the empire vulnerable.Britain feared invasion from France, terrorists and aliens - "invasion in the tunnels", hot air balloons
Aliens Act 1905
First law to define some groups of migrants as "undesirable". Act was passed because of fears of degeneration, bad health, and bad housing conditions in London
End of the world
Late Victorian society was struck with anxiety about disease, peculiar weather, industrialisation, pollution, immigration. This manifested as apocalyptic literature.
Imperial Gothic
Most commonly refers to fiction set in the British Empire that employs and adapts elements drawn from Gothic novels such as gloomy, forbidding atmosphere. Mysticism, degeneration, irrationality, barbarism were all words associated with the "other", which came to be deeply feared.
Degeneration
Many Victorian people believed that society was coming to the end of its reign of brilliance. Many looked to Decadence as evidence of this.[FINISH]
Fin de siecle
"End of a century," mostly applied to the end of the nineteenth century (1890s). Artists and authors attempted to abandon old techniques and discover new ones.
The Orient
European scholars influentially defined the 'orient' in stark opposition to the West as mysterious, barbaric, irrational and dangerous
Aestheticism
Reverence for beauty; movement that held beautiful form is to be valued more than instructive content. Art for art's sake.
The Wilde Trial
In 1895, the popular playwright Oscar Wilde was put on trial and charged with gross indecency which lead to moral panic and anxiety
Duality of man
Gothic fiction examined the sinister alter ego, apt since London itself had a dual nature, respectable streets existing side by side with areas notorious for their squalor and violence
Jack the Ripper
Anonymous serial killer around Whitechapel, London. 1888.
Biological criminology
A commonly held belief during the 19th century was that delinquency and violent tendencies were the result of biology and genetics, rather than structural factors. Had some involvement with eugenics.
London
The largest city in the world between 1881-1925. Its labyrinthine geography and disorientating fogs were suited to fictions about modern life. Persistently labelled as 'liquid', persistently aquatic and amphibious
Separate spheres
Nineteenth-century idea in Western societies that men and women, especially of the middle class, should have different roles in society: women as wives, mothers, and homemakers; men as breadwinners and participants in business and politics
Blue stocking women
Women regarded as having too much enthusiasm for intellectual goals, rather than their cultural goals as a housewife and mother.
The New Woman
A woman of the turn of the 20th century often from the middle class who dressed practically, moved about freely, lived apart from her family, and supported herself
Dandy
A man who is much concerned with his dress and appearance
The Gothic
Literature which calls to mind gloom, mystery, and fear
Hysteria
Originating from the Greek word for uterus, historically referred to a uniquely female mental disease characterised by anxiety, insomnia, irritability and sexual audacity. There was a commonly held belief that a woman's womb could move around her body.
The Rest Cure
Prescribed to women who are agitated or depresses - given medication and not allowed to work or see people
Irish Question
The dispute initiated by Protestant Britain's takeover of Catholic Ireland in the 1700s and Britain's continued control of Northern Ireland has caused tension and violence between the two for centuries.
Indian Rebellion 1857
Indian rebellion against the English East India Company to bring religious purification, an egalitarian society, and local and communal solidarity without the interference of British rule.
British Raj
The name for the British government's military rule of India between 1858 and 1947. Occupation of India brought industrialisation to the subcontinent, but colonialism also denied many Indians equal respect and economic independence.
Edwardian Era
The period of time when King Edward VII was on the throne (1901-1910)
Christianity and religion
While the Church was still a major institution, especially as a means of maintaining social status, scepticism began to arise, largely inspired by human technological progress and Darwinism which undermined the plausibility of religion.
Romanticism
A movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual.
Urbanisation
Following the Industrial Revolution, many moved to bigger cities to work in factories or make use of city infrastructure in other ways. This also produced a rapid population influx to these urban areas, resulting in social unrest.
New Imperialism
Historians' term for the late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century wave of conquests by European powers, the United States, and Japan, which were followed by the development and exploitation of the newly conquered territories.
New Journalism
A type of writing in which the journalist presents factual information in a form usually used in fiction. Popularised in the 19th century.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behaviour and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
Sexology
The study of sexuality. During the era, more research was conducted into the nature of human sexuality, and the more perverse side of it.
Post-Colonial Theory
An approach that examines the ways in which the colonial past has shaped the social, political, and economic experiences of a colonised country
High and low culture
Art for elite, privileged, educated classes, versus cultural products that are mass-produced, available to anybody. Began to emerge during the end of the 19th century, with short stories published in newspaper columns.
Welfare State
Wouldn't be introduced by law for another few decades, but philanthropists began to bring attention to the 'deserving poor'
Deserving poor
Widows, orphans, and the handicapped; were worthy of the care of the community
New Science
An emergence of astronomy, physics, biology, and mathematics during the 16th to 18th centuries, including logarithms, analytic geometry, and calculus. The emphasis was on experimentation and tangible proof.
Literary Naturalism
A new literary school in the 1890s that spring from realism, made up of young literary rebels who imported scientific determinism into literature, viewing people as part of the animal world, prey to natural forces and internal drives without control or full knowledge of them.
Realism
A 19th century artistic movement in which writers and painters sought to show life as it is rather than life as it should be
Popular culture
Found itself fascinated by exotic, imperial terrors, fears of invasion, etc. Many were related to the fear of the unknown associated with unfamiliar worlds.
Jingoism
Extreme, chauvinistic patriotism, often favouring an aggressive, warlike foreign policy
Zulu War
War in African between the British and the Zulu during which the British gained Zulu land. 1979.
Nymphomania
Uncontrollable or excessive sexual desire in a woman
Mendel
Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)
Elaboration
Opposite of Degeneration; development into a more varied, complex existence.
White Man's Burden
Idea that many European countries had a duty to spread their religion and culture to those less civilised
Ennui
Dissatisfaction and restlessness resulting from boredom or apathy. Associated with the Decadent Movement and Mal de Siecle.
Symbolist
Artist or artistic style belonging to the movement in European art and literature, c. 1885-1910, that conveyed meaning by the use of powerful yet ambiguous symbols
Thomas Edison (1847-1931)
One of the most prolific inventors in U.S. history. Among other things, he invented the phonograph, first practical light bulb, electric battery, mimeograph, and the moving picture.
Looting of Africa
The Europeans paid little attention to the rights of native Africans and many local treasures were stolen, often sent to British museums.
(1834) - 1901
Queen Victoria's reign.
The Gothic Novel
Mostly prevalent during the late 1790s and the early 19th century, but it continued to crop up throughout the latter part of the century.
It was called Gothic because its imaginative impulse was inspired by medieval buildings and ruins, and novels were usually set in castles or monasteries that had subterranean passages, hidden panels, trapdoors, etc.
It sought to induce terror and horror.
Other tropes include the supernatural, a damsel in distress, dreams and nightmares, superstition, eroticism.
Realism (1820-1920)
Realistic literature was based on the daily experiences of characters rather than putting weight on the plot.
Its purpose was to instruct and entertain and it wanted to reinforce that humans control their own destiny.
It avoided the sensational and dramatic elements of naturalism and limited the use of symbolism, preferring to use imagery.
The usual voice of realistic novels is omniscient third person.
Rejected Romanticism.
Naturalism (1870-1920)
Believed that a person's environment shaped their character.
Influenced by Charles Darwin.
Realism + naturalism describe things as they are, but naturalism also tries to scientifically analyse the influences behind a person's actions.
Pessimism is a key characteristic.
Traces back to France: Emile Zola.
1880s (Society)
Industrial society continued to evolve as Britain became home to many industrial cities.
Better job prospects for working-classes.
1870 Education Act: education becoming more accessible.
Public Health Act of 1872
Education for both sexes became compulsory.
Potential for a change in the social hierarchy as self-made middle-class men challenged the power of the landed aristocracy.
Industrialisation contributed to social and class tensions.
1880s (Empire)
The British Empire covered 1/5 of the earth's surface and 1/4 of the population.
Colonial administrators took on their duties with a fierce determination to do good.
1880s (Economy)
Commerce and overseas trade were key to making Britain the world's greatest power.
Britain's status as the financial capital of the world also secured investment which preserved its immense prosperity.
1880s (the Industrial Revolution)
Brought wealth and major social changes: miserable housing conditions, long working hours, infectious disease, premature death.
Decent sewers were finally being put in place in the larger cities, especially London, where the disease and living conditions for the poor had reached a crisis point.
1880s-1890s (Culture)
Darwin prompted debates about natural selection, religion and science.
The development of new technology and science brought about religious scepticism.
Interests included the spirit world and ghosts.
1880s (Women)
The Question of Women: A phenomenon referring to the various debates about women's place in society during the Victorian era.
The first wave of feminism was largely led by white, middle-class women and mostly didn't include women of colour.
1880s (Family)
A key focus of the period.
Men were still dominant.
Prostitution was common, with double standards regarding the moral expectations for married men and married women.
The impact of the growth of the middle class on literature
A rise in the popularity of novels as the middle class grew in size and wealth and more public libraries were opened.
Early 1880s themes
Social class
status
economics
identity.
1881 - Henry James
"The Portrait of a Lady" - Realism
1882 (Women)
The Married Women's Property Act was implemented, allowing women to own, buy and sell property in their own right and have a separate legal identity to that of their husband amongst other things.
Society began moving away from the Victorian notion that a woman's role was being the "angel of the house", the home being her only domain.
1884
The Third Reform Act built upon the First and Second Reform Acts by extending the vote to agricultural workers.
This meant that voters in counties had the same political rights as voters in the boroughs of industrial cities.
Although this gave more people the vote, 40% of men still didn't receive that right and neither did any women.
1888
The Whitechapel murders intensified as Jack the Ripper killed 5 women, resulting in people focusing on "the fallen woman" convention that described a woman who had "lost her innocence" and fallen from the grace of God - this was used to refer to the sex workers Jack the Ripper murdered.
Consequently, this made people start considering the duality of gender identity and women's place outside of the home.
Aestheticism
An art movement that focused on beauty, 'art for art's sake' and the visual and sensual qualities of all the arts, over more socio-political and moral themes.
Art exists for the sake of its beauty alone, without the need to serve any other purpose.
It began as a reaction to the prevailing utilitarian social philosophies, which dictated that something is only right if it is useful or for the benefit of the majority.
Themes of late 1880s / early 1890s
Morality
sexuality
duality
hedonism / aestheticism
the Gothic.
1901
Queen Victoria died and her son Edward VII took the throne. The Edwardian Period (1901-1914) refers to his reign.
1900s (Society)
The class system continued but there was an air of change.
Greater social mobility.
Growing socialist ideas led to the elevation of workers' social status: they were treated as humans rather than machines.
Establishment of trade unions
The lower classes started to receive benefits from the Government.
Introduction of a small pension for 70+ year-olds.
Balfour Education Act 1903: improved access to education
1900s (Politics and Economy)
Constitutional monarchy
Parliamentary reforms prevented thoughts of revolution.
By 1910, Britain's economic and industrial power was being overtaken by the US and Germany.
Literature and Imperialism
Authors began questioning imperialism, colonialism and racism.
Many focused on colonialism in Africa - Joseph Conrad's novella is an example of this.
Themes: Imperialism, colonialism, Darwinism, race, identity.
1903
The Suffrage movement intensified as Emmeline Pankhurst formed the "Women's Social and Political Union", which sought women's right to vote.
Women began to move away from the domestic field and became more politically active, resulting in the birth of the 'New Woman' - a figure that has departed from the Victorian gender norms and is educated and independent.
'New Women' also included working-class women.
1903 - Samuel Butler
"The Way of All Flesh" - published posthumously after he died in 1902.
1908
The first Ford 'model T' motorcar became available to the upper classes, which prompted society's fascination and technology.
With this fascination came anxiety about technological transformations and change as urban populations grew as a result of industrialisation.
Aestheticism and Decadence
Shocked the Victorian establishment by challenging traditional values, foregrounding sensuality and promoting artistic, sexual and political experimentation.
Aestheticism 1860-1870s
Many Victorians passionately believed that literature and art fulfilled important ethical roles. Literature provided models of correct behaviour. 'Art for Art's sake' became identified with the energy and creativity of aestheticism. Aestheticism unsettled and challenged the values of mainstream Victorian culture. As it percolated more widely into the general culture, it was relentlessly satirised and condemned.
Swinburne
Swinburne was strongly influenced by the French writers, Baudelaire and Gautier that poetry had nothing to do with didacticism (the teaching of moral lessons). He also insisted that beautiful poetic form and what he deemed 'perfect workmanship' made and subject admirable. Swinburne's poetry presented readers with moral ambiguity and with no comfortable psychological position.
Aesthetic Style
Poetry was central to aestheticism, from the work of Pre-Raphaelites, Swinburne and William Morris, through to the flourishing of poetic voices in the final decades of the 19th century. Aesthetes played with traditional oppositions or even hierarchies between art and life.
Aesthetics and Politics
Morris was one among a number of important proponents of aestheticism who saw art as inseparable from political ideals. Oscar Wilde was also a supporter of socialist politics, as was the writer Edward Carpenter.
Satire and Critique
This mixture of radical politics, sexual dissidence and privileging of the individual's experience of beauty was highly alarming to more conventional Victorians. In the press, aestheticism was roundly criticised.
Decadence
By the 1890s, another term had become associated with this focus on 'art for art's sake'. 'Decadence' was initially used to describe writers of the mid-19th century in France, especially Baudelaire and Gautier. The word literally means a process of 'falling away' or decline. In England, it was Wilde himself who was identified as central to the English decadent tradition, along with Arthur Symons and the poet, Ernest Dowson.
The Yellow Book
One of the most notorious exponents of what was labelled decadence was not a writer, however, but an artist. Aubrey Beardsley's distinctive, witty and often erotic illustrations are immediately recognisable, with their innovative shapes and lines and bold use of black and white space. Again, decadence was part of a culture of commercialism as well as of creativity.
Degeneration and the Wilde Trial
Decadence alarmed those who valued 'traditional' norms and values. It seemed to signify a society and culture threatened to its core with decline and decay. By the 1890s, decadence was associated with degeneration. Oscar Wilde, at the height of his fame as the most popular playwright of the moment, was put on trial. Decadence was intimately associated with dissident sexual desires.
Gothic fiction in the Victorian fin de siècle: mutating bodies and disturbed minds
The Victorian period saw Gothic fiction evolving and taking on new characteristics. For centuries Gothic fiction has provided authors with imaginative ways to address contemporary fears. As a result, the nature of Gothic novels has altered considerably from one generation to the next.
Post-Darwinian Nightmares
Late-Victorian society was haunted by the implications of Darwinism. For many, the balance between 'faith' and 'doubt' had tipped disturbingly in favour of the latter, and questions about the origins, nature and destiny of humankind had become matters for science, rather than theology to address.
Criminology
The influential Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) had argued that the 'born criminal' could be recognised by certain physical characteristics - unusually sized ears, for example. Notions that cruelty and criminal intent manifested themselves visibly in the features of an individual lay behind Wilde's novel The Picture of Dorian Gray.
Fantasy
Gothic imagery, given its fantastical nature, allowed authors to explore in an indirect fashion themes that were not necessarily acceptable subjects for discussion in respectable society. Count Dracula, for example, is feared for his ability to move unnoticed through the crowds of London, potentially afflicting all in his path with the stain of vampirism. Gothic fiction has always possessed the ability to adapt to its environment.
'Man is not truly one, but truly two': duality in Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde
Robert Louis Stevenson's The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886) is a late-Victorian variation on ideas first raised in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818). Stevenson's monster, however, is not artificially created from stitched-together body parts, but rather emerges fully formed from the dark side of the human personality.
Evolution and degeneration
Viewed on a simple level, Dr Jekyll is a good man, much admired in his profession. Mr Hyde, meanwhile, is evil. Darwin hypothesised that these stages of evolution had been preceded, in a direct line, by 'some amphibian-like creature, and this again from some fish-like animal'. Such a nightmarish biological lineage that denied the specialness of humans, feeds into many late-Victorian Gothic novels.
Homosexuality
Homosexuality and blackmail were frequently linked in this period. Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1885 (the year in which Stevenson was writing his tale), made 'gross indecency' - a nebulous term that was not precisely defined - a criminal activity.
