1.6-2.2 MCQ Test

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

transduction

the transforming of physical energy (ex. sight, sound, or smell) into neural impulses the brain can interpret

just noticeable difference

the minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

- Biological response in rods/cones/brain, etc

- Computes the Just Noticeable Difference (stimuli must differ by a constant %)

weber's law

the principle that to be perceived as different, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount)

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another

synesthesia

when a person experiences sensory crossover, such as tasting colors or feeling sounds

vision

the sense of sight, allowing us to perceive and interpret the world around us through our eyes

retina

the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

incomplete retinal images

eyes give different information input

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

accomodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina

nearsighteness

a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina

farsightedness

abnormal condition in which vision for distant objects is better than for near objects

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray and are sensitive to movement and light brightness (peripheral and twilight vision)

light/dark adaptation

Rods allow us to see in black and white and adapt much more than cones do when there is low light, while cones allow for color vision and manage vision in daylight

color vision

the ability to discriminate among stimuli on the basis of hue, independently of brightness or any other cue—depends on three sets of opposing retinal processes: red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black

trichromatic color theory

the retina contains 3 different types of color receptors (green, blue, and red)—when stimulated in combination, they can produce the perception of any color

opponent-process color theory

opposing retinal processes (ex. red-green) enable color vision (afterimage of opponent color is imprinted on the fovea)

cones

retinal receptors concentrated near the center of the retina and function in daylight or well-lit conditions (fine detail and color vision)

afterimages

the visual illusions that occur when we continue to see an image even after it has been removed from our field of vision (can be positive or negative color)

ganglion cells

cells in the retina that receive visual information from the photoreceptors via the bipolar cells and pass the information on to the brain

fova

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

dichromatism (color vision deficiency)

only two types of cones are functioning

monochromatism (color vision deficiency)

only one type of cone is functioning

prosopagnosia

face blindness

blindsight

responding to visual stimulus without experiencing it (ex. knowing if an object is vertically or horizontally oriented without being able to see it)

sound waves

waves that allow us to hear (must travel through a medium)

wavelengths (pitch)

length of a wave; determines frequency—higher frequency = higher pitch, lower frequency = lower pitc

amplitude (loudness)

height of a wave; determines decibels—higher amplitude = louder

place theory (pitch perception)

links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated—different cilia hairs vibrate when they sense different pitches (only explains high-pitched sounds)

volley theory (hearing)

neural cells alternate firing to achieve a combined frequency above 1,000 waves/sec

frequency theory (pitch perception)

the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch (explains low pitches)—all hairs vibrate but at different speeds

hearing difficulties

sensorineural or conduction deafness, often caused by heredity, aging, overexposure to loud noises, nerve damage, or mechanical damage

conduction deafness

a less common form of hearing loss. Caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

sensorineural deafness

most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve (cilia damage)

pheromones

olfactory chemical messages

chemical senses

gustation and olfaction—both have sensory receptors that respond to molecules in the food we eat or in the air we breathe

olfactory system/bulb

the sensory system responsible for our sense of smell—the olfactory receptors in our nose, the olfactory bulb in our brain, and the neural pathways that process and interpret smells

oleogustus

the taste of fat

gustation

sense of taste (chemical sense)

tastes

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami/savory, and oleogustus/fats

supertasters

people with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations

medium tasters

50% of people have this level of taste sensitivity

nontasters

people who cannot detect bitter compounds except at very high concentrations

tongue

a muscular organ located in the mouth that plays a crucial role in tasting and swallowing food—contains taste buds, which are specialized receptors responsible for detecting different tastes

taste receptors

a type of cellular receptor that facilitates the sensation of taste

structures in skin

detect differences between hot from warm and cold, pain, etc

sensory interaction (smell/taste)

the principle that one sense can influence another (smell influences our perception of taste)

touch

senses pressure, warmth, cold, and harmful chemicals via receptors in the skin, processed in the somatosensory cortex

vestibular sense

sense of balance; sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance

gate control theory

The spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain

- Gate opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

phantom limb syndrome

the sensation of pain or discomfort felt in a limb that has been amputated

kinesthesis

sense of movement; system for sensing position and movement of individual body parts

semicircular canals (cochlea)

a system of ring-like structures belonging to your vestibular system, the system responsible for your sense of balance and directionality of acceleration forces—water in inner ears acts as a biological gyroscope

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experiences and expectations (filling in the gaps with prior experiences)

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information (allows us to detect lines, angles, and colors)

schemas

using previous context to create concepts to understand new scenarios

perceptual sets

cognitive bias affects the way people interpret things based on their expectations and past experiences

gestalt psychology

"an organized whole"—German psychologists who emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes (whole exceeds the sum of its parts) (how we group objects together)

- Includes: proximity, similarity, continuity, and closure

closure

part of gestalt using top-down processing—filling in gaps if we can recognize them

figure/ground

the organization of the visual field (figures) that stand out from surroundings (ground)—foreground vs background

proximity

part of gestalt that groups objects that are close together as being part of the same group

similarity

part of gestalt in which objects similar in appearance are perceived as being part of the same group

selective attention

can only pay attention to one thing at a time

cocktail party effect

can only pay attention to one conversation while many are happening

change blindness

things happen outside of our attention because of our inattention (ex. Gorilla magic trick)

inattention (inattentional blindness)

failing to see objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

binocular depth cues

depth cue dependent on the use of two eyes—ex. Retinal disparity

retinal disparity

when brain computes distance by comparing retinal images from the 2 eyes—the greater the difference between the 2 images, the closer the object is (binocular depth cue)

convergence

a cue about a nearby object's distance, enabled by the brain's combining of retinal images

monocular depth cues

depth cues that can be perceived by one eye alone—interposition, relative height, relative motion, linear perspective, relative size, and light and shadow

relative clarity

objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects

relative size

the depth cue in which we perceive distance based on the comparison of sizes between objects

texture gradient

part of linear perspective—objects that are farther away or extend farter away from us, such as a cornfield, will appear to have a finer, smoother texture the farther out it is

linear perspective

a type of depth prompt that the human eye perceives when viewing two parallel lines that appear to meet at a distance

interposition

a type of monocular cue in which one object partially obscures or covers another object, giving the perception that the object that is partially covered is farther away

perceptual consistance

perceiving objects as unchancing even as illumination and retinal images change (top-down process)

apparent motion/movement

an optical illusion where a stationary object appears to be moving

concepts

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category—matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

algorithms

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

heuristics

a simple thinking strategy (mental shortcut) that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently (faster than algorithms but more error-prone)

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes (may lead us to ignore other relevant information)

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory (if instances readily come to mind, we presume such events are common)

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often in a way that has been successful in the past

priming

a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus

framing

the way an issue is posed—can significantly affect decisions and judgment

gambler's fallacy

a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events

sunk-cost fallacy

sticking to the original plan because time was already invested, even when switching to a new approach could save time

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, oranize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior