US History Since 1865 Exam 2

1. Why did the United States suddenly begin acquiring overseas colonies in the 1890s?

The US began acquiring overseas colonies in the 1890s due to economic necessity, social anxiety, and ideological shifts. During this time, the American economy was stagnant with prices falling because of overproduction. Political and business leaders believed that spreading the market overseas would ensure economic stability. There was also a crisis of masculinity. With men moving from independent farm life to urban factory jobs, there was a fear that men were becoming weak. The expansion and war were opportunities for men to reclaim their masculinity. The US also started to fulfill our national destiny by competing with global superpowers: England, France, and Germany. This belief surged a missionary impulse where many Americans believed that we needed to uplift and civilize foreign populations. The ideology of Anglo-Saxon superiority started to expand. People argued that Americans were the most capable of self-government and that it was the white man’s burden to govern the overseas colonies.

2. How and why did Progressive politicians (Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson) reshape the trajectory for the American empire in the 20th century?

a.      Roosevelt believed in international police power. He transitioned the US into a global player through the open-door policy and the Roosevelt Corollary. The Open Door Policy ensured that China remained open to free trade and enterprise for all nations, rather than being exclusive to European colonies. This policy shifted the focus from owning land to owning market access. The Roosevelt Corollary expanded the Monroe Doctrine. It made it so the US would act as an international police power in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt believed that it was the US duty to intervene in Latin American nations to ensure economic and political stability.

b.     Taft shifted American influence from military to economic leverage using Dollar Diplomacy. He believed in dollars for bullets, prioritizing private capital and tariffs to further American interests abroad. Taft thought that economic investment was a more stable and less controversial way to maintain influence than constant military occupation.

c.      Wilson introduced the Missionary Diplomacy. He started by spreading American values to uplift other nations. But this often led to direct intervention, such as the U.S. invasions of Mexico in 1914 and 1916 to enforce his vision of proper government. During WWI, Wilson reframed America as a tool to make the world safe for democracy. His 14 points proposed a national order based on self-determination for colonized people, free trade, and the creation of the League of Nations.

3. To what extent did American expansion from 1890 to 1916 expand the liberal values of democracy, self-government, and individual rights?

U.S. expansion at the turn of the 20th century reflected both a limited spread of liberal values and significant contradictions. While the United States promoted gradual political development—introducing local elections in the Philippines and investing in infrastructure, education, and legal systems—it often framed these efforts as steps toward self-government. Policies like the Open Door in China also emphasized free trade and territorial integrity, though they largely served American economic interests. At the same time, these actions revealed deep hypocrisy: the U.S. suppressed independence movements in the Philippines, denied full constitutional rights to people in new territories through the Insular Cases, and restricted Cuban sovereignty with the Platt Amendment. Expansion was also justified by racial ideologies that undermined claims of promoting liberty. Domestically, this imperialism sparked debate, with critics arguing it threatened democratic ideals, while even reform-minded Progressives often overlooked these contradictions abroad.

4. To what extent did WWI represent the fulfillment of the Progressive spirit?

For many Progressives, the war was viewed as an opportunity to apply their ideals of expert planning, social unity, and moral reform on a national and global scale. They believed that war could create a national utopia by moving the country toward collective action. The war expanded federal power, fulfilling the goal of a managed economy. Government leaders, like Herbert Hoover, established the War Industries Board to oversee industry, the Railroad Administration set transportation rates, and the FDA regulated prices. Social reform was also on the rise as women’s contributions strengthened the push for suffrage. Woodrow Wilson framed the war as a mission to spread democracy, his 14 points, and the League of Nations as a vision of what the world should be. The war also revealed major contradictions. The government suppressed disapproval of the war through the Espionage and Sedition Acts. These acts led to cases such as Eugene V. Debs and Schenck v. United States. Nativism increased as Americans questioned immigrants’ loyalty. After the war, failure to join the League of Nations and widespread disappointment weakened the Progressive movement, contributing to the conservative shift in the 1920s.

5. How did experiences of the US during WWI lead to the construction of citizenship along racial and ethnic lines?

After WWI, America led to a more restrictive and exclusionary construction of citizenship. This is defined through racial and ethnic homogeneity and the belief of 100% Americanism. During and after WWI, the definition of who was a “real American” became tied to loyalty, race, and national origin. The use of hyphenated Americans (German-Americans) was viewed with suspicion, fueling anti-immigrant beliefs and debates over national identity. Tensions started to rise into violence during the Red Summer of 1919, as African American veterans returned demanding the rights they fought for. Fear of radicalism led to events like the Palmer Raids, where thousands of immigrants were arrested or deported, and the controversial trial of Sacco and Vanzetti. These attitudes led to the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act, which restricted immigration based on race and nationality. The resurgence of the KKK promoted the idea of 100% Americanism. The long-lasting impact of this era led to the US government shifting its message to emphasize universal freedoms rather than race.

6. How did the events of World War I and its aftermath shape the politics of the 1920s

After WWI, American politics shifted away from Progressivism towards a conservative era focused on normalcy, laissez-faire economics, and nativism. The election of Harding reflected the focus on domestic economic growth. The rejection of joining the League of Nations left America isolated, avoiding global politics throughout the decade. The fear of foreign ideas led to the adoption of nativism, isolation policies, and the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act. Although cities had economic growth, farmers struggled with falling prices, with the government refusing to intervene. Cultural conflicts also emerged, such as the Scopes Trial, which showed the divide between modern and traditional values in the 1920s.

7. To what extent was the economy of the 1920s "roaring"?

The economy was “roaring” in terms of industrial innovation, mass production, and urban consumerism. The rise of Fordism, mass production, and the assembly line by Henry Ford revolutionized industry. Ford used welfare capitalism of high wages to discourage unions and boost productivity. New technology and household goods showed a modern consumer-driven lifestyle. This shift was supported by easy credit, allowing Americans to purchase items through installment plans, and by laissez-faire government policies that cut taxes and pushed business growth. Rural America faced an agricultural depression as overproduction decreased crop prices, leading to farm closures and penny auctions. The government ignored these struggles and suppressed labor movements, weakening unions. The decade was built on the foundation of debt and overproduction, which led to the Great Depression.

8. What was modern culture? How did it come to dominate American life?

Modern culture showed a shift away from traditional, family-centered, and religious values toward a society shaped by individualism, scientific thinking, and market dependence. Mass production made consumer goods more affordable while higher wages encouraged consumerism. New technologies like automobiles, radios, and household appliances spread urban ideas and lifestyles across the country, creating a national culture. Credit also started promoting overconsumption. Social changes such as the Harlem Renaissance and the rise of the “new woman” challenged traditional racial and gender norms. The Scopes trial highlighted the growing trust in science over religion. Modern culture sparked strong resistance from rural and traditional Americans, who saw these changes as a threat to their values.

9. WHY and HOW did traditional (rural) Americans react to the advent of modern culture?

Traditional rural Americans reacted to the rise of modern culture with fear and resistance because they saw it as a threat to their religious beliefs, social order, and independence. They were worried about the “new woman” movement and the growing emphasis on individualism, undermining family and community values. The increasing belief in science over religion challenged religion worldwide. Immigration and postwar radical ideas fueled xenophobia and racial anxiety. Economic struggles from the farm crisis deepened the sense of displacement. In response, traditional Americans turned to religious fundamentalism. They also backed nativist policies such as immigration restrictions, contributed to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan, and resisted economic hardship through actions like penny auctions, all to defend their way of life against modern change.

10. How did the experience of the Great Depression cause a crisis of individualism?

The Great Depression overturned the belief in “rugged individualism,” which claimed that success or failure was a personal responsibility. As unemployment soared, it became clear that widespread poverty was the result of economic collapse rather than individual weakness, especially since society was dependent on the market. This shift redefined core values, linking freedom to economic security and casting extreme wealth as criticism. In response, Americans turned toward collective solutions, including the rise of labor unions, cooperative efforts from farmers, and government intervention through New Deal programs. This period led to a social safety net, including Social Security, and established economic security as a fundamental right supported by the government.

11. How did the experience of the Great Depression cause a change in Americans’ attitudes toward capitalism and the federal government?

The Great Depression shifted the blame for poverty away from individual failure and toward flaws in the economic system. As unemployment soared and suffering became widespread, the belief in rugged individualism collapsed, fueling anger toward the wealthy and a surge of political radicalism, from the growth of the Communist Party. The crisis redefined freedom itself: economic security became a basic right, and the government emerged with new security through the New Deal’s programs: regulating industry, empowering labor, and creating the first national welfare system. These reforms aimed to stabilize rather than replace capitalism; they permanently expanded the government’s role in economic life.

12. How did the New Deal reform the relationship between the federal government and the economy?

The New Deal transformed the US from a laissez-faire economy into an interventionist system. This is where the government managed markets, provided jobs, and guaranteed basic economic security. This was possible through agencies like AAA, NRA, and TVA; the government coordinated production and regulated wages and prices. New Deal legislation empowered workers by protecting unions, establishing a minimum wage, limiting hours, and banning child labor. The creation of Social Security and taxing the wealthy laid the foundation for a permanent welfare state and a new expectation of economic citizenship, in which Americans looked to the government to ensure stability and security.

13. Why did the United States break out of its isolationism and join WWII in 1941? How is this a turning point in American history?

The US abandoned isolationism and entered WWII as the rise of Fascism made neutrality unsustainable, and after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Although there were strict neutrality laws and widespread distrust of foreign cahoots, growing aggression from Italy, Germany, and Japan pushed the nation toward involvement. This led to the peacetime draft, Lend-Lease, and Atlantic Charter. America’s entry into WWII became a turning point: massive wartime spending ended the Great Depression, the US emerged as a global superpower, and national identity shifted toward the Four Freedoms. The war also expanded opportunities for women and minorities and accelerated economic changes, such as the decline of sharecropping.

14. How and why did wartime mobilization create opportunities for marginalized groups to promote equality in the United States?

Wartime mobilization opened major opportunities for marginalized groups by creating enormous labor demands and offering a moral framework to challenge inequality in the US. As millions of men left for military service, women, African Americans, Mexican laborers, and others were recruited into factories and fields, while the four freedoms provided a basis to argue for equal rights. Activists leveraged the urgency of war to pressure the government, leading to policies like the Fair Employment Practices Commission. The Double V Campaign linked the fight against fascism abroad to the fight against racism at home, while economic shifts weakened sharecropping. Even Japanese Americans used military service to assert loyalty. These experiences pushed the nation toward a more inclusive understanding of economic citizenship, where the government protects both freedom and economic security for all.