Literary, stylistic and rhetorical devices

Paper 1 terminology with explanations, examples and effects

Literary, stylistic and rhetorical device

Not necessarily any significant difference between them, though one could try to draw up borders.

* Literary devices: A language technique that creates meaning and deepens the reader’s understanding of the ideas presented in the text.
* Stylistic devices: A language technique that affects how language is experienced and delivered, without necessarily deepening the meaning. (Arguably a subset of literary devices)
* Rhetorical devices: A use of language that is intended to have an effect on its audience through sentence structure, sound or pattern.

Abbreviations

Definition: A shortened form of a word or phrase

Example: etc. (et cetera), LOL (laughing out loud)

Effect:

* Easier writing and reading
* Though it may exclude readers unfamiliar with the abbreviation
* Common in online communication

Acronyms

Definition: An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of the abbreviated words

Example: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

Effect:

* Easier writing and reading
* Though it may exclude readers unfamiliar with the abbreviation
* Common in online communication

Active sentence construction

Definition: A sentence where the subject performs the action of the verb

Example: '“Tom killed her last year” (as opposed to the passive ‘she was killed last year’)

Effect: More direct, easier to read, engaging

Alliteration

Definition: Repetition of a consonant at the beginning of words (do not have to be consecutive)

Example: “Elisabeth’s eloquent errors”, the content of their character”

Effect: Make sentences elegant + add impact

Allusion

Definition: Hinting at somebody or something famous, either in real life or in literature

Example: “This place is like the Garden of Eden” (biblical allusion)

Effect: Allows the writer to express more than the words themselves by playing on associations and the reader’s prior knowledge. Assumes the reader is familiar with it, if not this device is not effective.

Anaphora

Definition: A type of parallelism, repeating the same word or phrase at the BEGINNING of successive sentences

Example: “The exams may be close. The exams may be scary.”

Effect: Makes the point clear, underlines its importance + adds elegance and memorability

Anecdote

Definition: A short amusing, interesting and/or relevant story about a real incident or person (personal anecdote: about the writer’s own life)

Example: “In my first year of the IB, I almost didn’t choose English A”

Effect: Illustrates a point with a telling example + can create intimacy and trust

Antithesis

Definition: Putting two or more contrasting or opposite theses/ideas/claims together, often in parallel structures

Example: “There is not a Black America and a White America”

Effect:

* To emphasize the contrast and make it more effective
* Make sentences elegant
* Adds impact
* To make the point memorable and convincing.

Apostrophe

Definition: The narrator directly addresses something inanimate or someone who is dead/absent

Example: “O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” (Juliet believes she is alone)

Effect: Directs the reader’s attention to something other than the speaker

Assertion

Definition: To state something in a forceful manner

Example: “We must prevail!”

Effect: Emphasizes message + creates emotion

Assonance

Definition: Repetition of similar vowels in a sentence (alliteration with vowels)

Example: Tailored the sailor

Effect: Rhythm, elegance, sometimes rhyme

Asyndeton

Definition: Leaving out conjunctions between related words and phrases

Example: “We shall get a 7 in English, we shall get a 7 in History, we shall get 45 IB points.”

Effect: Creates an impression of speed + emphasizes the relation between the words/phrases

Chiasmus (antimetabole)

Definition: A type of contrast in which one phrase is echoed in the opposite direction of the first

Example: “Let us never revise out of fear, but let us never fear to revise.”

Effect: Adds elegance and emphasis

Cohesion

Definition: Forming a united whole text

Effect:

* The reader is guided through the text
* Shows relation between different words, clauses and paragraphs

Colloquialism

Definition: A word or phrase that is not formal or literary, and is used in ordinator/familiar conversation.

Example: “What’s up?”

Effect:

* A feeling of realism for the reader
* Connection between writer and reader, in some instances
* Can express the location, era, society, etc. in a text
* Inappropriate for certain text types (e.g. news)

Contrast

Definition: To emphasize the difference between two or more people/elements/things/etc.

Example: “My story is one of rags to riches.”

Effect: Create emphasis (positive or negative)

Dialect

Definition: Variant of English which is particular to a specific region or social group

Example: Caribbean English, working class dialect

Effect: Can express location and identity

Diction

Definition: The choice and use of words within a text.

Effect: Type of diction can affect the reader’s view of the writer or subject.

Direct address

Definition: When the writer communicates a message directly to another individual or the reader

Example: Addressed by name, nickname, pronoun, expression, etc.

Effect: Creates closeness

Emotive diction

Definition: Words or phrases that are positively or negatively loaded/charged

Example: United vs divided, happiness vs despair

Effect:

* Creates emotions (involves the audience emotionally)
* Indicates the writer’s view in a non-fictional text

Epiphora (epistrophe)

Definition: A type of parallelism, repeating the same word or phrase at the END of successive sentences

Example: “I want the best, and we need the best, and we deserve the best.”

Effect:

* Makes the point clear, underlines its importance
* Adds elegance and memorability

Euphemism

Definition: Substituting a term considered offensive or taboo with an inoffensive one.

Example: He passed away (instead of: he died)

Effect: Avoids alienating or offending readers + shows respect

Figurative language

Definition: Language that is not meant literally, using figures of speech to express something outside the exact meaning.

Examples: Euphemism, metaphor, simile, etc.

Effect:

* Effect depends on how the figurative language is used.
* Overall, though, it creates indirect meanings and feelings in the reader.
* Aids in a flowery and beautiful language.

Formality level

Definition: Describing how formal a text is, ranging from informal to formal

Example: hey bestie (informal) vs. hello (neutral) vs. greetings (formal)

Effect:

* Different genres and types of texts demand different formality levels
* Blog: relatively informal
* News article: neutral or formal
* Presidential speech: formal

Humor

Definition: Something absurd or comic which amuses the reader.

Example: Sarcasm, irony, and puns can all be forms of humor.

Effect: Appeals to feelings + create intimacy between writer and reader

Hyperbole

Definition: Exaggeration, clarifying a point by overstating it

Example: “The exams will kill me.”

Effect: Adds emphasis + could be humourous

Hypophora

Definition: The speaker asks a question and then answers it themselves

Example: “What do I want? To make it through the IB”

Effect: Engages and includes the reader

Imagery

Definition: A description that produces a mental sensory image

Example: “The edging ticking of the clock resonated through the room”

Effect:

* Appeals to feelings
* Creates a sense of immediacy
* Helps the reader envision and imagine

Types of imagery

Vision = visual imagery

Touch = tactile imagery

Hearing = auditory imagery

Smell = olfactory imagery

Taste = gustatory imagery

Movement = kinesthetic imagery

Bodily experiences (e.g. hunger, thirst, fatigue, pain) = organic imagery

Inclusive diction

Definition: Words that create a bond between writer and reader and/or include the reader

Example: Personal pronouns such as “we”, “us” and “our”

Effect:

* Creates a feeling of intimacy or unity
* Reduces the feeling of distance between writer and reader
* May make the reader more inclined to take in the writer’s argument

Informal spelling

Definition: Misspelling words purposefully to make the language more informal and colloquial

Example: Gonna (going to), nite (night)

Effect: Shows how the words sound

Irony

Definition: Verbal irony is saying the opposite of what one means. It

Example: Telling a tall person that they are short

Effect:

* Irony is context dependent
* Humorous + entertaining
* Adds extra meaning

Jargon

Definition: Special words or expressions used by a profession or group

Example: “Olfactory imagery” in literary analysis

Effect:

* Affects how precise a text is
* Affects how trustworthy the writer seems
* May be difficult for others to understand

Juxtaposition

Definition: Placing opposites or extremes beside each other (literally means positioned side by side)

Example: “From the trenches of the IB to the sunlit summer break”

Effect:

* Highlights differences (compares and contrasts)
* Creates emphasis/impact

Literal language

Definition: Directly saying what is meant, as opposed to figurative language

Example: “He died” or “I’m in love”

Effect: Clear communication, no flowery language, some say it is more formal

Metaphor

Definition: A type of figurative language, a comparison without the words “like” or “as”

Example: “Teacher’s pet”

Effect: Adds extra meaning beyond the words, arguably makes the language more beautiful and complex

Meter

Definition: A form of rhythm in text. A regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables within a line.

Example: IAMBIC pentameter (5 iambs in a line)

Effect. Beauty, creates rhythm, can indicate meaning

Metonymy

Definition: Substituting a word or phrase with another it is closely associated with (describing something indirectly by referring to a related object)

Example: “The crown is less powerful today than in the 16th century” (the crown represents the monarchy

Effect:

* Elegance and poetic color
* Adds meaning by playing upon associations

Mood

Definition: The general atmosphere or feeling the text creates in the reader. Created by diction, connotations and the combination of devices and scenes in a text.

Effect: The mood usually supports the writer’s purpose with the text. (Aids them in achieving it)

Onomatopoeia

Definition: Words imitating the sounds they describe

Examples: Bank, beep, rattle, crack

Effect: Appeals to feelings, creates a sense of immediacy and drama

Oxymoron

Definition: Two opposites are joined to create an effect. A paradox that seems self-contradictory.

Examples: Sweet sorrow, shared secrets, living dead

Effect:

* Can add elegance/beauty
* Makes the meaning more profound

Passive sentence construction

Definition: Formed through ‘to be’ + ‘-ed’

Example: She was killed last year (as opposed to the active: Tom killed her last year)

Effect:

* Sounds more formal
* Hides the agent (creates tension/excitement)

Paradox

Definition: A statement which seems to contradict itself and yet might be true.

Example: “It is awfully hard work doing nothing.”

Effect: Can be humorous, but also make the reader think.

Parallelism

Definition: Words, phrases, or clauses that are similar in length, structure, and grammatical form placed next to each other creating a syntactic repetition

Example: “The rich are getting richer, the poor are getting poorer”

Effect:

* Emphasize the meaning
* Creates contrast
* Creates rhythm and elegance in the language
* Build imagery

Personal appeal

Definition: The use of personal pronouns like “I”, “you”, “we” and “us”. This can be a direct appeal or trying to include the whole audience.

Example: “I urge you to”, “it is high time we”

Effect:

* Creates a connection between the speaker and the audience
* Can make the speaker seem respectful of others

Personification

Definition: A type of figurative language where human qualities are given to animals, objects, and concepts

Example: “The smiling sun”, “the evil exams”

Effect: Adds extra meaning beyond the words

Polysyndeton

Definition: The use of several (unnecessary) conjunctions between words or phrases.

Example: “You need so much for the exams; a pen and a ruler and a brain and a need to live…”

Effect:

* Emphasize that many things are listed
* Creates rhythm
* Affects the speed (slows down or speeds up, depending)

Point of view / narrative perspective

Definition: The narrator’s position in relation to a story being told. Has a unique voice perspective and style.

Examples and effects:

* First person
* Pronouns: I, me, myself
* Central
* The narrator is also the main character
* Peripheral
* The narrator is another character in the story, who witnesses the main character
* Frame
* The narrator is a character in an outside story
* Second person
* Pronouns: You, your
* Immersive experience as if they were the first person
* Third-person
* Pronouns: He, she, they
* Omniscient
* The narrator know everything about the story and its characters, including inner thoughts and feelings
* Limited
* The narrator sticks closely to one character
* It can remain with one character or switch
* Objective
* Neutral narrator that is not privy to characters’ thoughts or feelings
* Mostly observational tone

Pronouns

Definition: A word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase

Examples: you, me, us, we, she, him, they

Effect: More efficient language, can involve the reader

Power line

Definition: Memorable catch-phrases

Example: “Yes, we can!”

Effect: Underline the main message + memorable

Pun (or double entendre)

Definition: Amusing plan on the double meaning of a word

Example: “They shot a whole in his head and the police are looking into it”

Effect: Intriguing, entertaining (humorous)

Punctuation

* Comma: ,
* Period: .
* Question mark: ?
* Exclamation mark: !
* Dash: – (not the same as a hyphen)
* Colon: :
* Semi-colon: ;
* Parenthesis: ()

Register

Definition: Particular varieties or styles of language, varies in different purposes and contexts depending on the receiving audience

Example: Legal register, register of a weather forecasting. Difference in register when hanging out with friends and when at work.

Effect: Creates formality level and associations

Repetition

Definition: Said again, repeating key words, motifs phrases, or sentences

Example: “I have a dream” speech

Effect: Emphasizes and hammers home the point, draws attention

Rhetorical question

Definition: A question asked for effect with no answer expected

Example: Maybe it doesn’t matter after all?

Effect: Involves the audience, gets them to think for themselves

Rhyme

Definition: The repetition of identical or similar sounds (words starting or ending with the same sound). May occur at different points of a sentence. Different rhyme schemes can be used.

Examples: Here and there. A-B-B-A.

Effect: Creates rhythm and beauty, might draw connections

Sarcasm

Definition: Harsh irony aiming to be unpleasant

Example: "You sure have your priorities straight”

Effect: Criticizes, creates a bitter tone

Sentence types

* Simple sentence
* Subject and verb, one clause
* “I am hungry”
* Compound sentence
* Two main clauses
* Conjunction between them
* “I am hungry and thirsty”
* Complex sentence
* Subordinate clauses and subordinating conjunctions
* “Since I haven’t eaten, I am hungry”

Similie

Definition: A type of figurative language, an explicit comparison using the words “like” or “as”

Example: “The exams are like an oncoming train”

Effect: Adds extra meaning beyond the words

Symbol

Definition: Something which represents something other than itself, added meaning

Example: Rose = symbol of love

Effect: Adds extra meaning beyond the words

Synecdoche

Definition: A part is used to represent the whole, or the whole is used to represent a part

Example: “All hands on deck” (hands = workers)

Effect:

* Adds elegance and poetic color
* Adds to the meaning and associations

Synthetic personalization

Definition: The process of the speaker addressing mass audiences as if they were familiar individuals through inclusive language.

Effect:

* Makes the listener feel close to the speaker
* Creates a sense of intimacy
* Makes the speaker seem trustwrothy

Tense

Definition: A set of forms taken by a verb to indicate the time of the action in relation to the time in which it is described.

Example: Present tense (happening currently), historical present tense, past tense

Effect:

* Present tense makes the story come alive
* Historical present tense creates immediacy in the past
* Past tense can feel more distant for the reader

Tone

Definition: The writer’s attitude to the topic or to the reader. Tone is created through an interplay of different language features and literary devices.

Example: “We are invincible” = nationalistic tone

Effect: Different tones will affect the mood and the reader of a text in different ways, often connected to the purpose of the text

Tricolon

Definition: A type of parallelism. A series of consecutive three parallel words, phrases, or clauses that are similar in length and grammatical form

Example: “We can make it through the semester. We can make it through May. We can make it through the IB.”

Effect: Emphasizes ideas and points by “piling up” evidence supporting them

Understatement (litotes)

Definition: A type of irony, describing something as less important than it actually is.

Example: “It was OK” about the best night of your life

Effect: Emphasizes through contrast to reality + entertains

Varied sentence length

Definition: A variation of long and short sentences for specific effect

Example: A short sentence will stand out after a succession of long ones

Effect: Depends. In this example, it emphasizes the short sentence.

Vocabulary

Definition: The body of words, artistic and stylistic forms, and techniques utilized in the language.

Example: A broad vocabulary

Effect: Depends on the type of vocabulary.

* Broad vocabulary = seems intellectual, trustworthy
* Limited vocabulary = seems younger and/or less educated

Word class

Definition: A group of words that have the same basic behavior and function.

Examples and effects:

* Nouns: specific
* Adjectives: describes, flowery language
* Verbs: active, movement
* Adverbs: Describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb
* Examples: loudly, slowly, daily
* Modal verbs: express the speaker’s attitude towards truth, and possibility, show obligation, indicate ability or give permission
* Examples: should, must, will, might
* Modal adverbs: A specific group of adverbs that add additional meaning to modal verbs
* Examples: Actually, allegedly, clearly, doubtlessly
* Determiners: A word that modifies, describes, or introduces a noun
* Examples: my, your, his, its, that, this, some
* Prepositions: Indicate direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, etc.
* Examples: in, at, on, of, to
* Interjection: Used to express a feeling, request, or demand something
* Alas, hurray, oh dear