Political Ideas- Liberalism

What is Rationalism?

Rationalism refers to the idea that humans are capable of understanding the world through the use of logic and reason

What is meant by the term ‘Mechanism’?

Mechanism refers to the idea that we can shape institutions, such as the state to better fit out purposes

How can people excercise their reasoning?

People can excercise their reasoning through the development of their rational faculties, such as through the acquisition of knowledge. As a result of this, their ability to self-fufill is enhanced

How does rationalism protect against our natural egotism?

As humans even though we are self interested, our behaviour is rational and respectful to others rather than being guided by emotion or impulse.

Usually violence is a last result of dispute due to our ability of rationalism.

What is a ‘State of Nature’?

A State of Nature refers to a world with no government or set of rules.

Why did John Locke argue that a State of Nature wasn’t that bad?

Even without a government, rational individuals would still have their natural rights protected, as a rational individual wouldn’t infringe on the rights of another.

What are our natural rights?

• Life

• Liberty

• Property

What was a reason John Locke argued why rational individuals would accept a government?

They would only accpet a government if it served in their best interests and enhanced their natural rights.

What was John Locke’s book called, and give a quote which relates to rationality?

• Two Treatise on Government (1689)

• ‘All men are by nature, free and equal’

What did Mary Wollstonecraft argue about rationality?

She argued that both men and women are equal in their ability to reason. (This stems back to foundational equality)

How did Wollstonecraft believe women were viewed in society?

Women were not seen as rational in society due to their over emotional behaviour

How did women suffering in society as a result of this view?

Their rights, such as individual freedom and equality were restricted.

What was Wollstonecrafts book and give a quote relating to rationality?

• A Vindication on the Rights of Women (1792)

• ‘ I do not wish women to have power over men, but power over themselves’

What did Wollstonecraft argue was the solution for women to be able to enhance their rationality?

Women needed to be granted formal education

What do liberals believe about the state in terms of rationality?

It should be limited, because it allows people to think in their best interests and also self-actualise.

As a result of liberals belief in rationality, our egoism is…

Tempered, because we acknowledge eachothers’ rationality

What do all liberalism agree with about individualism?

• Methodological Individualism

What is methodological indivdualism?

Methodological Individualism refers to the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any other social group or collective body.

Whos publication talks about this idea of methodological individualism?

• John Locke’s- Two Treatise on Government (1689)

  ‘Over himself, over his body and mind, the individual is sovereign’

Why is methodological individualism important?

As individuals are the centre of all political analysis, we hold natural rights, and these rights make us equal to all other humans who hold them

Why does John Stuart Mill believe all humans are different?

John Stuart Mill believed all humans are different because individuality is natural, and personal experiences shape unique character, enhancing our rationalism and helping us to self actualise.

What do classical liberals believe about individualism?

• They belive in Egotistical Individualism.

  This is the belief that people are self-seeking and self-reliant, aiming simply for their wants and needs, owing nothing to society in return

What does Egotistical Individualism lead to?

• An Atomistic Society. This is the belief that ‘society’ itself doesn’t really exist as a concept, but is just a collection of self-reliant individuals.

What did John Locke believe about people concuring to the formation of a state?

People would only agree to the formation of a state if it furthered their self interests and protected their natural rights

Give me a quote relating to an atomistic society?

• ‘Each man has a property in his own name’- John Locke (Two Treatise on Government)

What do modern liberals believe about individualism?

• Devolopmental Individualism

What is Developmental Individualism?

• Developmental Individualism is the belief that freedom should enable personal growth, education and self improvement, benefiting both indivduals and society

Give me a quote from T H Greene on developmental individualism?

• ‘True freedom is the power of self-development for every individual’- T.H Green

What does JSM say about developmental individualism?

As humans we should aim to develop our faculties, but in a way that the individual has identified as being best for them.

What was JSM’s idea of higher and lower pleasures?

John Stuart Mill’s higher and lower pleasures distinguish between different types of happiness:

• Higher pleasures – Intellectual and moral pursuits (e.g., philosophy, art, education) that develop the mind and character.

• Lower pleasures – Basic, physical gratifications (e.g., food, drink, rest) that provide temporary satisfaction.

Mill argued that higher pleasures are more valuable because they contribute to personal growth and long-term fulfilment.

What quote does JSM have towards developmental individualism?

• ‘It is better to be a human dissatisfied, than a pig satisfied’ (On Liberty 1859)

  This quote highlights the importance of intellectual and moral growth over mere physical pleasure.

What did Betty Friedan argue about women’s ability to self-actualise?

Betty Friedan argued that their ability was denied, she also called for laws to stop women being discriminated against.

What was the name of Betty Friedan’s publication?

• ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963)- talked about how the women she studied with at college were suffering from the ‘problem with no name’ because women were condemned to a life in the private sphere.

What does despotism of custom mean?

Despotism of custom is a concept from John Stuart Mill, meaning the oppressive power of societal traditions and norms that discourage individuality and progress.

3 main views of individualism?

• Methodological

• Egotisical

• Developmental

What do all liberals believe about equality?

• Foundational Equality- All people are born equal, in terms of their rights

What does John Locke believe about natural rights?

He believes that individuals are born with natural rights

Why is being born with natural rights important?

As we are all equal in terms of our natural rights, this brings the idea of natural justice whereby laws are made to protect these natural rights. (e.g rule of law). This is exemplified in the UK by the HRA 1998

What do classical liberals believe about equality?

• Equality of Opportunity- In classical liberalism, equality of opportunity means everyone should have the same chance to succeed, based on ability, not background.

What does JSM say about ‘Equality of Opportunity’?

JSM argued that equality of opportunity is essential for a just society. Individuals should have the freedom to pursue their own potential, regardless of their background or social class.

"The only freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing our own good in our own way."

What do modern liberals believe about equality?

• Real Equality of Opportunity- This refers to how individuals should have fair access to opportunities through state intervention, like education and welfare, to overcome societal disadvantages. AKA SOCIAL JUSTICE.

What did John Rawls say about ‘Real Equality of Opportunity’?

• In John Rawls’ 1971 publication ‘A Theory of Justice’ he talked about the Difference Principle- this refers to how inequalities should be arranged in society so that those at the bottom benefit more than those at the top.

What was John Rawls’ Veil of Ignorance?

• John Rawls ‘veil of ignorance’ is a thought experiment where people design a fair society without knowing their own status, ensuring fairness for everyone. It is said to apply both rational and consent in society.

3 main views of equality

• Foundational equality

• Equality of Opportunity

• Social Justice

What do all liberals believe about freedom?

• Absence of Constraint- If your actions are coerced by another individual, you are not free

• John Locke advcating for natural rights and limited government to protect individual liberty

What do classical liberlas believe about freedom?

• Negative Freedom- The absence of external restrictions, meaning that individuals are free to act without interfernce from the state of others.

What classical key thinker can be used to support negative freedom?

• JSM supported negative freedom, arguing that individuals should be free to act as they wish and carry out self regarding action (actions which only cause harm to yourself)

• ‘Humans are of no restrict, but that of doing harm to others’ (HARM PRINCIPLE)

What do modern liberals believe about freedom?

• Positive Freedom- This means that indiviudals may need state support to be truly free and reach their potential.

What does TH Green say about positive freedom?

• T.H Green argued that positive freedom required state intervention to remove social and econmic barriers, allowing individuals to develop fully.

• 'The ideal of true freedom is to maximise power of all members of society to make the best of themselves’ TH Green

What is an obstacle TH Green believes hinders peoples ability to self-realise?

• Pursuing things which go against self-realisation, (e,g drinking)

Another way freedom is viewed?

Limitations need to be placed on freedoms to ensure that others opportunites of rights are not infringed upon by other people

What did Betty Freidan say about limitations on freedom?

• In her 1963 publication ‘A feminine mystique’ she claimed that women were ‘trapped by an obligation to surrender their dreams so their husband and children can follow theirs’.

3 main views of freedom

• Absence of Constraint

• Negative Freedom

• Positive Freedom

What do all liberals believe about limited government?

• The state needs to be consented for by the people. It’s power should be restricted in terms of its procedure and how it operates.

What did John Locke say about limited government?

• ‘The aim of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom’

What is it called when individuals agreed to the state?

• John Locke's idea of social contract. Agreement of government, as long as state uphold the rule of law

What is the classical view of limited government?

The classical view of limited government is that the state should only exist to protect individuals rights, maintain order and provide basic public services, without interfering in personal freedoms or economic activities

Key Thinker to support classical view of limited government?

• John Locke.

• ‘All men are by nature free and equal’

How do modern liberals view that idea of limited government?

• Enabling State- more scope for government interventon in order to enable humans to flourish.

Which Key Thinker supports this modern view of limited government?

• John Rawls - diiference principle justifies increased state role in redistribution of resources and progressive taxation.

3 main views of limited government

• State needs to be consented for by the people

• State should only exist to protect rights and freedoms

• Enabling State