AP Comparative Government

Start of UNIT 1

Comparative Government

Very literal: Analyzing and comparing different gov'ts

Government

The institution through which a society makes and enforces laws and policies

Political Systems

Comprise the laws, ideas, and procedures of a gov'tal authority

State (informally "Country")

Sovereign Entity

Nation

Different from states or countries

Self-identified cohesive groups of people.

Multination State

State comprising of multiple nations - most states

Nation-State

A state whose citizens or subjects are mostly contiguous with a specific nation. Could be a specific nation or simple homogeneity within a state.

e.g. Japan, Ireland

Sovereignty

Self-government and determination for a state

Requirements for statehood (Montevideo Convention, 1933)

1. Permanent population (e.g. can't be nomadic)

2. Established territory/boundaries (e.g. Need to have an agreed upon, uncontested border)

3. Working, sovereign gov't (needs functional gov't with authority and power)

4. International Relations (must be able to trade and be recognized by other states)

Regime

The type of government in power

Authoritarian Regimes

The power comes from sources other than the people: could be religion, military, fear, etc.

e.g. China, which gets its power from its status as a police state.

Democratic Regimes

The power comes from the people. The gov't relies on public support to give it authority.

Power vs. Authority

Power is the ability to do something, while authority is the right to do it

Political Culture

Widely shared beliefs, values, and norms that define how the public and the gov't interact.

Regimes vs. Gov'ts

Regimes don't change often; they represent the underlying structure and foundation of a state's gov't.

Gov'ts are the current face of a regime, and change frequently, due to coups, elections, etc.

Illiberal Democracies/Hybrid Regimes

Put up a facade of legitimate democracy, but are truly authoritarian regimes. Have elections which are not fair or free, and control people in other ways (e.g. Censorship) E.g. Russia

One-Party States

Dominated by a single controlling political party

E.g. China

Theocracies

Religion plays a critical rule in gov't

E.g. Iran

Totalitarian Gov'ts

Total government

Control over personal lives as well as internal affairs

E.g. Nazi Germany, USSR, CCP under Mao

Military Regimes

Military used to solidify control

E.g. Nigeria in the 90's

Democratization

A transition from authoritarian to democratic regime

Democratic Consolidation

A state of solidified democracy where the country is highly unlikely to revert to an authoritarian regime on its own

Authoritarian Consolidation

A state of solidified authoritarian status where a country is unlikely to revert to a democratic regime

Helpful/Detrimental to Democratization

Helpful:

- Diverse electoral systems

- Multiparty competition

- Independent judiciaries

- Protections of civil liberties

- Separation of powers

Detrimental:

- Political corruption

- Voting restrictions

- Marginalization

- Excessive Consensus or polarization between parties

Coups v. Revolutions

A coup is typically led by the elite, and it uses violence or threat of the same to replace a regime

Revolutions are not always violent, they can be peaceful. They are generally supported by a greater portion of the public, not just by elites.

Federal System

Delegates some powers to regional and state branches

Unitary Systems

All power is concentrated in the central gov't

Can still have branches of gov't, but they lack authority

Devolved Unitary Systems

A unitary system in which certain powers are temporarily granted to lower branches

Asymmetric Federal System

A federal system in which certain powers are unconstitutionally taken away from lower branches of gov't

Political Legitimacy

Public acceptance to the gov't's authority

Do the people recognize the gov't's power and authority?

Sources of political legitimacy

Popular elections

Constitutionalism.

Nationalism

(Perceived) Political Efficacy

Economic Growth

Can an authoritarian regime be legitimate?

Yes, provided that the people accept the gov't's authority

UK Gov't

Constitutional Monarchy, but without an official written constitution

- Instead, reliant on tradition and precedent

- Has an official state religion, the Church of England

Two legislative houses:

- Hereditary House of Lords

- Elected House of Commons

Consists of England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland

Is a devolved unitary gov't

Consists of three branches

- Centered in London

Human development Index (HDI)

Indicator of level of development for each country, constructed by United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and life expectancy

Ranges from 0-1, highest quality of life being a 1.00.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total measurable market in a country. All goods and services output, typically in one year.

GDP Per Capita

GDP divided by population, can give us more accurate scales of how well off a population is.

GDP Growth Rate

Shows how quickly an economy is developing

Gini Coefficient

A measure of income inequality within a population, ranging from 0 (complete equality), to 1 (total inequity)

Freedom House Score

A score out of 100 that assesses personal freedoms, rights, and civil liberties in a state.

Transparency International Score

Measures corruption and crime in a country, from 0-100 (higher is worse)

Rule of Law

No one is above the law. Gov't enforces law, not the other way around.

Rule by Law

The law is subjective, and manipulated for political purposes. The law backs the gov't up, not the other way around.

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power

Capitalism (Reference)

An economic system centered around the concept of "survival of the fittest."

Each person looks out for his/her own interests exclusively.

e.g. The USA

Democracy (Reference)

Style of gov'tal headship which places power in the hands of the people

e.g. Switzerland

Autocracy (Reference)

A gov't which places power exclusively or nearly exclusively in the hands of one person.

e.g. Russia

Oligarchy (Reference)

A government ruled by a few powerful people (not necessarily nobles)

Aristocracy (Reference)

A government in which power is in the hands of a hereditary ruling class or nobility

Socialism (Reference)

A theoretical gov't where all citizens share and redistribute wealth (usually via the state) equally.

No examples. This form of gov't is easily corrupted, typically into Communism

Communism (Reference)

A theory or system of social organization based on the holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state.

Generally very corrupt.

e.g. formerly the USSR, the CCP

Dictatorship (Reference)

A form of government in which the leader has absolute power and authority.

e.g. the Nazi Regime

Monarchy (Reference)

A government ruled by a king or queen

e.g. many medieval states

Constitutional Monarchy (Reference)

A King or Queen is the official head of state but power is limited by a constitution.

e.g. modern UK

Start of UNIT 2

Three Branches of Gov't

Legislative Branch - Makes laws

Executive Branch - Enforces laws

Judicial Branch - Interprets laws

Separation of Powers

Division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches

Head of Gov't

Executive tasked with running government.

e.g. Presidents, PM's

Head of State

The executive role that represents the people both nationally and internationally.

e.g. Presidents, monarchs

Parliamentary Systems

Citizens vote for legislative representatives which in turn select the leaders of the executive branch.

Legislature and Executive are fused.

Voters select MP's (Members of Parliament), who in turn select the PM (Prime Minister) who will lead the gov't (but is not the head of state)

Policymaking is more efficient, because the majority rules.

e.g. the UK

Presidential Systems

Governments with strong presidents as both the head of state and the head of government.

The Executive and Legislative are separated.

The President is directly elected.

Is designed to have some gridlock, and passing laws is intentionally difficult.

Semi-Presidential System

The voters select a president and legislature in separate elections.

The PM is then nominated by the president and confirmed by the legislature.

There is both a PM and a president, with the latter nominating the former.

E.g. Russia: Presidential elections for a president, who appoints the PM

UK Executives

Head of State: King Charles III

Largely Ceremonial

Some role in foreign relations

Head of Gov't: PM Starmer

Commander in Chief

Cabinet Appointments

Laws, proposals and approvals, but the King approves

Treaties

Foreign Relations policy, with King being the public face

Mexico Executives

Head of State: President Steinbaum

Commander in Chief

Cabinet Appointments

Laws, proposals and approvals

Treaties

Foreign Relations

Nigeria Executives

Head of State: President Tinubu

Commander in Chief

Cabinet Appointments

Laws, proposals and approvals

Treaties

Foreign Relations

Russia Executives

Head of State: President Putin

Commander in Chief

Cabinet Appointments - Putin and PM

Laws, proposals and approvals, but the PM proposes domestic legislation

Treaties

Foreign Relations

Head of Gov't: PM Mishustin

Some role in cabinet appointments

Some role in domestic affairs, so that if things go wrong in the Russian interior, the people blame the PM, not the President

Sits there and smiles.

China Executives

Head of State: President Xi

Commander in Chief

Treaties

Foreign Relations

Head of Gov't: Premier Li

Cabinet Appointments (but the premier is appointed by...you guessed it: the president)

Laws, proposals and approvals: Premier (must be approved by NPC)

Iran Executives

Head of State: SL Khamenei

Commander in Chief

Appoints most high-up politicians

Head of Gov't: President Rouhani

Cabinet Appointments, but SL appoints everyone else

Laws, proposals and approvals

Treaties

Foreign Relations

Single Member District Plurality (First Past the Post)

An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official.

The candidate with the most votes represents the whole district

Executive Term Limits

Caps on how long a President or PM can stay in office.

China Legislature

Lower House: Nat'l People's Congress

Elected

Party controlled

Elects President + Approves the Premier

Legitimizes Executive's Policies

*Is Constitutionally the most powerful institution, but is Party-controlled

Iran Legislature

Lower House: Majles

Elected

Approves legislation

Makes Budget

Confirms Presidential appointments

*Acts under the supervision of the Guardian Council and therefore religion

Nigeria Legislature

Lower House: House of Representatives

Elected

Approves legislation

360 members

Higher House: Senate

Also elected

Approves legislation as well

Confirmation/impeachment power

109 members

Mexico Legislature

Lower House: Chamber of Deputies

Elected

Approves legislation

Levies taxes

Verifies election outcomes

Upper House: Senate

Again, elected in

Treaties

Legislation

Confirms Supreme Court Justices

Approves Federal intervention in state matters

UK Legislature

Lower House: House of Commons

Elected

Approves legislation

Includes the PM

Upper House: House of Lords

Appointed and Hereditary

Reviews and amends bills

Can delay implementation

Very little effective power

Russia Legislature

Lower House: The Duma

Elected

Passes legislation

Confirms the President's PM pick

Upper House: Federation Council

Appointed

Approves budget

Confirms judicial nominees

Approves military actions

China Judiciary

Tiered court system

CCP appointments

Rule by Law

No Judicial Review

Not independent; CCP-controlled

Iran Judiciary

Islamic Sharia Law must be upheld

The judiciary exists to ensure that the legal system is based on Sharia Law

Head of the Judiciary nominates the other half of the GC, but is appointed by the SL

Judicial Review exists, in the scope of Sharia Law, not the Constitution

Not independent; it is a political tool

Mexico Judiciary

Another tiered court system

- Has a Supreme Court

- Has judicial review

- Magistrates in the Supreme Court are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate for 15-year terms

Has been undergoing reforms in the post-PRI era

Semi-independent; still influenced by organized crime

Nigeria Judiciary

Tiered system

Judicial Review is present

Sharia Courts are present in the North

Judges are recommended by Judicial Council, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate

Recent reforms trying to reduce corruption in the branch.

Semi-independent; heavily influenced by the President

Russia Judiciary

Tiered system

Judicial review in theory but not in practice

Judges are nominated by the President and approved by the Federation Council

Is often used to target opposition

Not independent; a political tool, dependent on the President

UK Judiciary

Not a unified system

Common Law is relied upon to enforce Rule of Law

While each area has its own courts, there is still a Supreme Court that acts as the highest circuit.

No official judicial review, but the Supreme Court does sometimes check the other branches

Independent, because it upholds Rule of Law and supports Checks and Balances

Start of UNIT 3

Civil Society

Associations that aren't gov't-backed. These organizations are typically focused on providing some skill of lobbying for a political change.

Civil Society is often but not always politically focused.

- e.g. NGO's, media outlets, business associations

NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations)

Self-explanatory; any organization that isn't gov'tal

What strengthens Civil Society?

More free regimes

Fewer gov'tal limits on civil liberties and political freedoms

Effects of Civil Society

Promotes democratization

Monitors the gov't and holds them accountable

Expose gov'tal issues and flaws

Represent people's interests

Restrictions on Civil Society

Could include:

Gov't censorship

Regulations on things like protests and freedoms

Restrictions on NGOs

Silencing/harassing journalists, political opponents, protestors, etc.

Gov'ts restrict Civil Society to maintain power and minimize threats.

Political Culture

Widely shared beliefs, values, and norms that define how the public and the gov't interact.

What can form political culture?

Geography - Japanese culture was very unique due to how the island isolated the population

Religious Traditions - Iran uses Sharia Law, with Islam defining the political culture

History - Nigerian tribes have long histories of animosity, which makes it harder for them to collaborate today.

Political Socialization

The ways that we transmit political culture throughout a society. Methods:

Family is most important in influencing political culture

School and childhood peers

Media

Religious institutions and authorities

Overall society

In authoritarian regimes, the gov't generally plays more of a role

Political Ideologies

Driving beliefs and principles behind gov't and politics. These are more broad and conceptual than political culture is.

Individualism (Political Ideologies)

Prioritizes civil liberties and individual freedom over gov't restrictions.

e.g. Many Right-leaning Americans, who prioritize individual rights

Neoliberalism (Political Ideologies)

Belief that limited gov'tal intervention in the economy is good, but things should be otherwise free from gov't influence. Values privatization, free trade, deregulation, and elimination of subsidies

e.g. The overall net of American opinions, where some gov't support is generally welcomed, but people reject excessive involvement.

Privatization

Private ownership rather than public shareholding

Nationalization

The antithesis to Privatization, going from private to public, gov'tal ownership.

Subsidies

Gov't grants to achieve specific goals through financial incentives

Communism (Political Ideologies)

Belief in complete elimination and abolition of private property. Support for near-total economic gov't control.

No strong examples - In reality, "Communist" regimes are a lot more controlling than this.

Socialism (Political Ideologies)

Not to be confused with Communism

Belief in the reduction of disparities and inequalities, typically through wealth redistribution.

Support for nationalization of major industries

No strong examples - we haven't seen a successful socialist regime in history

Wealth Redistribution

Taking money from taxes, especially from the rich, and giving it to lower classes to reduce wealth disparity.

Fascism (Political Ideologies)

Extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and ethnic homogeneity

supports marginalization of minorities

e.g. Nazi Germany, Italy during WWII

Populism (Political Ideologies)

Support for the interests of the working class, rather than the elites.

Post-Material Values

Values beyond the material

Includes self-expression, Quality of Life, etc.

More post-material values lead to more public pressure on the gov't