APUSH PERIOD 8

Cold War

A prolonged period of geopolitical tension and ideological conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States, alongside their respective allies, that began after World War II and continued until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s. It was characterized by a series of political, military, and economic struggles, including a nuclear arms race and numerous proxy wars.

Soviet Union

An influential socialist state that existed from 1922 until its dissolution in 1991, comprising multiple republics led by the Communist Party, and known for its role as a superpower during the Cold War, opposing the capitalist interests of the United States.

Joseph Stalin

The leader in the mid-1920s until 1953, recognized for totalitarian rule, extensive purges, and the centralization of power, along with the rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture that transformed the economy but led to widespread famine and suffering.

United Nations

An international organization founded in 1945 post-World War II, established to promote peace, security, and cooperation among countries. Comprising 193 member states, it addresses various global issues, including human rights and humanitarian aid, aiming to prevent future conflicts through diplomacy.

satellites

Countries that are politically, economically, or militarily aligned with a more powerful nation, particularly used to describe Eastern European countries under the influence or control of the Soviet Union during the Cold War, often lacking full sovereignty as they followed policies dictated by Moscow.

Winston Churchill

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War II, known for powerful speeches and unwavering determination that rallied morale against Nazi Germany. After the war, he notably warned about the division between the East and West in Europe, signaling the onset of the Cold War.

Iron Curtain

A metaphorical term used to describe the political, military, and ideological barrier that divided Europe into two separate areas during the Cold War, distinguishing the Soviet-controlled Eastern Bloc from the democratic Western nations, highlighting the divide in governance and ideology.

containment policy

A crucial strategy employed by the United States during the Cold War aimed at preventing the spread of communism beyond its existing borders. This policy led to involvements in various global conflicts as the nation sought to limit Soviet influence and support free governments and movements.

George Marshall

A U.S. Army General who served as Secretary of State after World War II, best known for proposing a comprehensive program that provided over $12 billion in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the war, ultimately preventing the spread of communism in vulnerable democracies.

Truman Doctrine

A significant American foreign policy initiative announced in 1947 that aimed to provide political, military, and economic support to countries threatened by communism. This doctrine marked the beginning of active U.S. involvement in international conflicts aimed at containing communist influence.

Marshall Plan

An American initiative enacted in 1948 to provide economic aid to Western European nations recovering from the devastation of World War II, with the goal of promoting political stability and preventing the spread of communism in fragile democracies during the early Cold War period.

Berlin airlift

A major military operation conducted by the United States and its allies from June 1948 to September 1949, supplying West Berlin after a Soviet blockade cut off ground access. Over nearly a year, thousands of flights delivered essential supplies to sustain the city's population, demonstrating support for anticommunist efforts.

West Germany

Officially known as the Federal Republic of Germany, this state was established in 1949 and existed until reunification in 1990. It was characterized by a democratic government and economic prosperity, serving as a bulwark against communism during the Cold War while receiving support through various means from the United States and NATO.

East Germany

Officially known as the German Democratic Republic, this communist state existed from 1949 until reunification in 1990 under Soviet control, characterized by limited political freedoms and widespread surveillance, eventually facing significant public unrest that led to its dissolution.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

A military alliance formed in 1949 between the United States, Canada, and several European nations aimed at providing collective security against potential threats posed by the Soviet Union. It operates on the principle that an attack on one member is considered an attack on all, deterring aggressive actions by non-member nations.

Warsaw Pact

A political and military alliance established in 1955 among the Soviet Union and seven Eastern European socialist states to counter NATO. It aimed to consolidate communist power, facilitating military cooperation and mutual defense among member states until its dissolution in 1991.

National Security Act

Legislation passed in 1947 that reorganized the U.S. military and intelligence community in response to the geopolitical climate of the Cold War, establishing the Department of Defense, the National Security Council, and the Central Intelligence Agency to enhance national security and coordinate defense strategy.

arms race

The competitive build-up of military weapons and technologies between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, leading to an unprecedented increase in nuclear arsenals and military capabilities. This rivalry fostered global tension and insecurity as both nations strived for superiority.

Douglas MacArthur

A prominent American general during World War II and the Korean War, recognized for his leadership in the Pacific Theater and his role in Japan's post-war occupation and reforms. His advocacy for aggressive military tactics during the Korean War ultimately led to his dismissal by President Truman.

Mao Zedong

The founding father of the People's Republic of China, who led the nation from 1949 until his death in 1976. His policies, including forced collectivization and the Great Leap Forward, aimed to transform the country into a socialist society but resulted in significant upheaval and loss of life.

People’s Republic of China

The official name of the nation since its establishment in 1949, under communist leadership. It has undergone extensive economic reforms that transformed it into a major global player and one of the world's largest economies, moving away from its earlier isolationist and strictly socialist policies.

38th parallel

The latitude line that served as the unofficial border dividing two countries on the Korean Peninsula before and during the Korean War, which erupted in 1950. The division established following the war remains a significant point of tension, representing the geopolitical split between North and South.

Korean War

A conflict that erupted in 1950 between two countries on the Korean Peninsula, with the northern part backed by China and the Soviet Union, while the southern part received support from the United Nations, primarily the United States. The war ended in a stalemate in 1953, establishing a tense ceasefire that continues today.

John Foster Dulles

The U.S. Secretary of State under President Eisenhower, recognized for his significant role in shaping American policy during the Cold War, advocating for anti-communist strategies, including strong military alliances and a doctrine that emphasized confrontation with adversaries.

brinkmanship

A political strategy characterized by escalating threats to achieve desired outcomes, particularly evident in U.S.-Soviet relations during the Cold War. This policy involved pushing conflicts to the edge of crisis while risking potential nuclear confrontation to compel opponents to back down.

massive retaliation

A defense policy implemented during the Cold War asserting that any nuclear attack against the United States would be met with an overwhelming nuclear response, aiming to deter adversaries from engaging in aggressive actions and maintain strategic stability in international relations.

Korean armistice

An agreement signed in July 1953 that brought an end to active hostilities in the Korean War, establishing a ceasefire and creating a demilitarized zone. Although a permanent peace treaty was never achieved, this armistice solidified the division between the two halves of the Korean Peninsula.

Nikita Khrushchev

The leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, noted for his de-Stalinization policies and attempts at reform within the Soviet system. His leadership saw both increased tensions with the West during events like the Cuban Missile Crisis and efforts to engage in diplomacy with the United States.

Sputnik

The first artificial satellite launched into orbit by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957. Its successful deployment marked the beginning of the space age, leading to the U.S.-Soviet space race and raising concerns in the United States about technological and military inferiority in the emerging space era.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

The United States government agency established in 1958 responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research, created in response to early Soviet advancements in space technology, particularly after the launch of Sputnik.

U-2 incident

An event in May 1960 when an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Soviet airspace, escalating tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union and resulting in the cancellation of a planned summit between President Eisenhower and Premier Khrushchev.

Fidel Castro

A Cuban revolutionary who governed as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and as President until 2008, known for establishing a one-party socialist state in Cuba and defying U.S. influence during the Cold War, particularly exemplified by the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

military-industrial complex

The relationship and interdependence between the military, government, and defense industry that emerged prominently during the Cold War, which influenced national policy regarding military spending and defense strategies while raising concerns about civilian government control over defense policy decisions.

Bay of Pigs

A failed military invasion of Cuba in April 1961 undertaken by U.S.-backed Cuban exiles aiming to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro. The botched operation resulted in a significant embarrassment for the U.S. government and strengthened Castro's regime while heightening Cold War tensions.

Berlin Wall

A barrier constructed in 1961 dividing East and West Berlin, erected by the East German government to prevent East Germans from fleeing to the West. Its fall in 1989 marked the end of the Cold War and symbolized the reunification of Germany and the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe.

Cuban missile crisis

A confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over the presence of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, which brought the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear war. The resolution involved the U.S. agreeing not to invade Cuba and the secret removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey.

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

An agreement signed in 1963 by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, prohibiting nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater, and in space. This treaty represented a significant step towards arms control during the Cold War and efforts to reduce the threat of nuclear proliferation.

flexible-response policy

A strategy adopted during the presidency of John F. Kennedy that emphasized providing a range of military options, including conventional and nuclear forces, to address international crises. This approach sought to avoid the pitfalls of relying solely on nuclear deterrence and to give the U.S. more versatile response capabilities.

Non-Proliferation Treaty

An international treaty opened for signature in 1968, aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting peaceful uses of nuclear energy, along with advancing disarmament efforts. Reflects international commitment to keeping nuclear arms limited and controlled.

Henry Kissinger

A prominent American diplomat and political scientist who served as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State during the Nixon administration, playing a key role in shaping U.S. foreign policy, particularly in relation to détente with the Soviet Union and the opening of diplomatic relations with China.

detente

A period marked by relaxation of tensions and improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union in the late 1960s through the 1970s, characterized by arms control agreements and increased diplomacy aimed at stabilizing the Cold War dynamic and reducing the risk of nuclear conflict.

anti-Ballistic missiles (ABMs)

Defense systems designed to intercept and destroy incoming ballistic missiles, developed in response to the growing threat of nuclear missile attacks during the Cold War. The pursuit of these technologies led to complex strategic implications for arms control negotiations between the superpowers.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)

A series of negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union aimed at curbing the arms race by limiting the development of strategic nuclear weapons. Agreements reached during these talks established important frameworks for nuclear arms control and set precedents for future disarmament dialogues.

Loyalty Review Board

A governmental body established by the U.S. in 1947 to evaluate the loyalty of federal employees during the Red Scare, it conducted investigations that often led to the dismissal of individuals suspected of communist sympathies, reflecting the intense anti-communist sentiment of the era and raising concerns about civil liberties.

Dennis et al. v. United States

A Supreme Court case decided in 1951 in which convictions under the Smith Act were upheld, highlighting the tension between free speech and national security during the Red Scare. The case became a significant point of reference for discussions surrounding civil liberties in the context of anti-communism.

Smith Act (1940)

A federal law enacted in 1940 that made it a criminal offense to advocate the violent overthrow of the government or to belong to groups that promote such actions. This law was widely used during the Red Scare to target communist organizations and individuals.

McCarran Internal Security Act

Legislation passed in 1950 designed to protect the United States from domestic communism, requiring communist organizations to register with the government and creating mechanisms for the detention of suspected subversives during national emergencies, reflecting a heightened response to perceived threats.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

A congressional committee established in the late 1930s that gained notoriety during the 1940s and 1950s for investigating allegations of communist activity among private citizens, public employees, and organizations, thereby playing a significant role in the Red Scare and contributing to the culture of suspicion and repression.

Alger Hiss

A former State Department official who was accused of espionage for allegedly passing classified documents to the Soviets. His conviction for perjury in 1950 became a central point of controversy during the Red Scare, raising questions about Americans' loyalty and security.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

American citizens executed in 1953 for espionage, accused of transferring atomic secrets to the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Their trial and execution ignited considerable public debate regarding the fairness of the proceedings and the implications for civil liberties in the context of national security.

McCarthyism

The practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper evidence, particularly associated with Senator Joseph McCarthy during the early 1950s. This period is noted for the widespread fear of communist influence in the U.S., leading to aggressive investigations and a culture of suspicion.

Harry S. Truman

The 33rd President of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953, who made pivotal decisions during the early Cold War, such as the use of atomic bombs in World War II and the establishment of the Truman Doctrine that focused on containing communism globally.

Employment Act of 1946

Legislation aimed at promoting economic stability and growth in the United States in the aftermath of World War II, asserting the government's responsibility to ensure that all Americans who are able and willing to work can find meaningful employment.

Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill of Rights or GI Bills)

Landmark legislation enacted in 1944 that provided a range of benefits to returning World War II veterans, including educational assistance, low-interest home loans, and unemployment compensation, significantly aiding in their reintegration into civilian life and contributing to post-war economic growth.

baby boom

A demographic phenomenon characterized by a significant increase in birth rates in the United States following World War II, lasting from approximately 1946 to 1964, influenced by various factors including economic prosperity and the return of soldiers from the war.

Levittown

One of the first mass-produced suburbs in the United States, developed in the late 1940s as a model for affordable housing, representing the post-war suburbanization trend that provided new living opportunities for returning veterans and their families.

22nd Amendment

An amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1951, that limits individuals to two terms as President, passed in response to concerns regarding the concentration of power after Franklin D. Roosevelt’s four-term presidency.

Taft-Hartley Act

A significant piece of labor legislation passed in 1947 that sought to restrict the activities and power of labor unions, allowing states to pass right-to-work laws and prohibiting various union tactics, reflecting a shift in labor relations during the post-war period.

Fair Deal

A set of domestic policies introduced by President Harry S. Truman following World War II that aimed to expand social welfare and civil rights initiatives, including healthcare and education expansion, despite facing considerable opposition from Congress.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

The 34th President of the United States, known for his leadership during the Cold War, domestic initiatives, and significant foreign policy achievements, including the establishment of NATO, and for his moderate approach to governance and politics.

modern Republicanism

A pragmatic political philosophy promoted during the Eisenhower administration that sought to balance traditional conservative values with a recognition of social welfare programs, aiming for limited government while promoting individual liberty and economic prosperity.

Highway Act

Legislation passed in 1956 that authorized the construction of an extensive national highway system, reflecting post-war America's increasing reliance on automobiles, promoting economic growth through improved transportation and suburban expansion.

New Frontier

A domestic program launched by President John F. Kennedy in the early 1960s that aimed to address various social, economic, and civil rights issues, promoting economic growth, civil rights advancements, and educational improvements in the United States.

beatniks

Members of a cultural movement that emerged in the 1950s, known for rejecting conventional values and embracing alternative lifestyles, exploring themes of personal freedom and social change, played a significant role in the broader counterculture of the 1960s.

Jackie Robinson

The first African American to break the color barrier in Major League Baseball when he joined the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, he not only transformed professional sports but also became a symbol of racial equality and social justice in America.

Committee on Civil Rights

A group established by President Harry S. Truman in 1946 to investigate issues regarding civil rights in the United States and recommend policy changes, reflecting the increasing national focus on civil rights issues post-World War II.

Thurgood Marshall

An influential civil rights attorney who became the first African American Supreme Court Justice, known for his pivotal role in advancing civil rights litigation, particularly in landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education that addressed racial segregation in public schools.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

A landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, significantly affecting the civil rights movement and serving as a catalyst for desegregation efforts across the United States.

Southern Manifesto

A document created by southern politicians in 1956 in resistance to the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, opposing the desegregation of public schools and reflecting the ongoing resistance to civil rights advancements in the South.

desegregation

The process of eliminating the separation of different racial groups in public spaces, particularly schools, aiming to achieve legal and social equality following the civil rights movement, which challenged systemic discrimination and inequality.

Little Rock

The site of a significant event in 1957 when nine African American students, known as the 'Little Rock Nine,' were denied entry to a public high school due to racial segregation. Their struggle for integration prompted federal intervention and highlighted the deep-seated issues surrounding civil rights in education.

Rosa Parks

An activist celebrated for her courageous act of refusing to vacate her bus seat for a white passenger in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955, which sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott and became a significant moment in the fight against segregation and racial injustice.

Martin Luther King Jr.

A seminal figure in the American civil rights movement, known for his advocacy of nonviolent protest against racial discrimination and his powerful oratory, particularly exemplified by the iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech delivered during the 1963 March on Washington, advocating for racial equality and justice.

Montgomery bus boycott

A pivotal protest against racial segregation in public transportation initiated in 1955 and led primarily by African Americans in Montgomery, Alabama, following Rosa Parks' arrest, leading to a significant Supreme Court ruling that declared segregated busing unconstitutional.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

An African American civil rights organization founded in 1957, co-led by Martin Luther King Jr., focusing on nonviolent activism to advance civil rights and social justice, emphasizing grassroots organizing and mobilizing communities to combat racial discrimination.

sit-in movement

A form of nonviolent protest that emerged in the early 1960s where activists occupied segregated lunch counters, demanding service, in an effort to challenge and dismantle racial segregation in public spaces, gaining national attention and support for the civil rights movement.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

A prominent civil rights organization formed in 1960 primarily composed of young activists advocating for civil rights and voter registration through nonviolent direct action, playing a critical role in campaigns for desegregation and expanding opportunities for African Americans.

covert action

Secret operations conducted by governments to influence political conditions in other nations without revealing their involvement. Such actions were particularly prevalent during the Cold War as a means of countering perceived threats and destabilizing unfriendly regimes.

Suez crisis

A diplomatic and military conflict that occurred in 1956 over the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser, resulting in a military intervention by the UK, France, and Israel, which highlighted declining colonial influence and Cold War tensions in the region.

Eisenhower Doctrine

A foreign policy initiative announced in 1957 that pledged military and economic assistance to Middle Eastern countries resisting communism, reflecting American commitment to containing Soviet influence during the Cold War and ensuring stability in the strategically important region.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

An intergovernmental organization of oil-exporting nations established in 1960 to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among member countries, aiming to stabilize oil markets and secure a steady income for oil-producing nations while influencing global energy prices and economies.

Yom Kippur (October) War

A conflict that erupted in 1973 between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria, marked by an initial surprise attack on Israel during the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur. The war highlighted ongoing regional tensions and ultimately led to significant diplomatic negotiations in the following years.

oil embargo

A political maneuver involving the restriction of oil exports to specific nations or groups, notably utilized by OPEC during the late 1970s in response to U.S. support for Israel, resulting in significant economic challenges and shifts in global oil dynamics that emphasized the strategic importance of energy resources.

Camp David Accords

Peace agreements brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter in 1978 between Egypt and Israel, marking a groundbreaking step in Middle Eastern diplomacy by establishing recognition of Israel and the return of the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, while laying the foundation for ongoing peace negotiations in the region.

Peace Corps

A volunteer program established in 1961 by the U.S. government aimed at promoting world peace and friendship through meaningful service in developing countries, focusing on education, health, and agriculture, fostering cross-cultural understanding and cooperation between nations.

Alliance for Progress

A multiyear initiative launched in 1961 by the U.S. to provide economic assistance and development aid to Latin American countries, aimed at improving living conditions and countering the spread of communism in the region by promoting political stability and economic growth.

Ngo Dinh Diem

As the first president of South Vietnam, this leader played a pivotal role in shaping U.S. foreign policy during the Vietnam War. His leadership was characterized by authoritarian control, anti-communism, and a reliance on American support, which ultimately led to his downfall.

domino theory

This theory was a significant element of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War, suggesting that the spread of communism in one country could trigger a cascading effect, causing surrounding nations to fall to communism as well. This belief was particularly influential in the context of Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

a collective defense arrangement aimed at preventing the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. It included the United States and several other nations, though it ultimately struggled to achieve its goals.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

Passed in 1964, granted President Johnson broad authority to escalate military actions in Vietnam following alleged attacks on U.S. naval vessels. This resolution marked a significant escalation of American involvement in the conflict.

General William Westmoreland

served as the American military commander in Vietnam during the peak of the war. He is best known for advocating a strategy of attrition against North Vietnam and seeking to increase American troop levels.

Tet Offensive

a major military campaign launched in January 1968 by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces. This surprise attack during the Vietnamese New Year attacked multiple South Vietnamese cities and significantly changed American public opinion regarding the Vietnam War.

Robert F. Kennedy

, a prominent political figure and U.S. Senator from New York, was a vocal advocate for civil rights and opposed the Vietnam War. His candidacy for the presidency in 1968 aimed to unite the country amid a time of social upheaval, but it was tragically cut short by his assassination.

Richard Nixon

The 37th President of the United States, known for his foreign policy achievements, including the opening of diplomatic relations with China, and for the Watergate scandal, which ultimately led to his resignation in 1974.

Democratic Convention in Chicago

This event became infamous for its chaotic atmosphere, marked by protests and demonstrations against the Vietnam War, showcasing deep divisions within the Democratic Party and leading to violence outside.

Hubert Humphrey

A seasoned politician and Vice President under Lyndon Johnson, the Democratic nominee for the presidency in 1968. His candidacy faced challenges from anti-war activists and highlighted the internal splits within the party.

Henry Kissinger

served as the U.S. Secretary of State and National Security Advisor, playing a crucial role in shaping American foreign policy in the late 20th century. He is particularly known for his strategies in Vietnam and for negotiating the Paris Peace Accords.

Vietnamization

A strategy implemented by President Nixon to gradually reduce U.S. military presence in Vietnam while increasing the combat capabilities of South Vietnamese forces, intended to create an environment for a successful withdrawal.

Nixon Doctrine

Doctrine articulated by President Nixon in the late 1960s, emphasizing that the United States would assist allies with military aid but would avoid direct ground troop involvement in conflicts, signaling a shift in American foreign policy.

Kent State

became the site of a tragic event in 1970 when the Ohio National Guard shot and killed four protesting students during an anti-Vietnam War demonstration, igniting national outrage and protests across the country.