122 Kinesiology Final - Social Psychology

Social psychology

The scientific study of how people influence each other, and other factors that affect social behaviour.

An attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.

Norman Triplett

Conducted the first sport-specific social psychology experiments.

Examined the effects of others on performance. (cyclists ride faster in groups vs alone, children reel in fishing lines faster when other kids are watching)

Social Facilitation Theory

Audiences can help or harm performance depending on the conditions. (simple/familiar tasks, complex/unfamiliar tasks)

Kin topics relevant to social psychology

• mental performance

• confidence

• body image

• motivation

• goal setting

• anxiety

• etc

Social influence

Real or imagined pressure to change one’s behaviour, attitude, or beliefs.

Both negative and positive effects.

5 sources of power

• legitimate power

• expert power

• reward power

• coercive power

• referent power

Legitimate power

Based on one’s socially sanctioned claim to a position/role that gives them the right to require and demand compliance.

Expert power

Derived from subordinates assumption that the power holder possesses superior skills and abilities.

Reward power

Having control over the distribution of rewards given to individuals.

Coercive power

Having the ability to punish/threaten others who don’t comply with requests/demands.

Referent power

Based on one’s identification with, attraction to, or respect for the power holder.

Social support

Refers to the perceived comfort, caring, assistance, and information that a person receives from others.

Consider:

• the size of ones social network

• the amount of social support provided

• the type of social support provided

5 types of social support

• instrumental support

• emotional support

• informational support

• companionship support

• validation support

Instrumental support

Tangible, practical assistance that will help a person achieve goals.

Ex. spotting a weightlifter at the gym, providing transportation.

Emotional support

Occurs through expressions of encouragement, caring, empathy, concern toward a person. Has the ability to increase self-esteem and reduce anxiety.

Ex. praising a friend for their exercise effort, encouragement.

Informational support

Includes giving directions, advice, or suggestions, and providing feedback regarding progress.

Ex. coach providing feedback when learning a new skill, instruction on new activities.

Companionship support

Reflects the availability of persons within one’s social network.

Produces positive affect and can distract people from negative exercise related feelings.

Ex. the availability of a friend to exercise with., participating.

Validation support

Involves comparing oneself with others in order to gauge progress and confirm that one’s thoughts, feelings, problems, and experiences are normal.

Ex. people with heart disease exercising in groups of people with heart disease because “if they can do it, so can I.“

Research on social power and physical activity

• social power in the family

Pressuring family members to be more active can lead to decreased physical activity.

Making family members feel guilty for their inactivity can lead to decreased physical activity.

• rewards

Can be a powerful determinant of action. (incentives for attendance, reduced price)

Seems to encourage initial adherence but not effective to encourage long-term adherence. (additional incentives must be provided over time to encourage long-term adherence)

Research on social support and physical activity

• social support from family

Increased exercise intentions and adherence.

Among children and youth, social support from parents and other family members is one of the most important determinants of physical activity.

• social support from important others

Positively related to physical activity and adherence to structured exercise programs.

• social support from professionals in exercise environments

Important for continued participation in program.

Provide multiple types of social support. (socially supportive, socially bland)

Socially supportive leadership

Lots of social support in terms of encouragement, praise, engaging in conversation.

Associated with individuals having more energy and enthusiasm, less fatigue, more enjoyment, stronger exercise intentions.

Socially bland leadership

Absence of social support, criticizing exercisers who made mistakes, don’t call participants by name.

Motivation

Describes the internal and external forces that produce the initiation, direction, and persistence of behaviour.

3 components of motivation

• direction of effort (situations that are sought out)

• intensity of effort (amount of effort put forth)

• persistence (maintaining intensity of effort over time, critical during obstacles)

2 types of motivation

• intrinsic motivation

• extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation

Engaging in behaviours because of interest and enjoyment.

You love to do it, that’s why you do it.

Extrinsic motivation

Engaging in behaviours to attain rewards or outcomes that lie outside the activity itself.

You do it to achieve another goal.

3 approaches to understanding motivation for behavioural change

• behavioural approaches

• cognitive approaches

• cognitive-behavioural approaches

Behavioural approaches

• operant conditioning

• vicarious conditioning

Operant conditioning

Behaviours associated with consequences that are learned through reinforcement or punishment following the behaviour.

• reinforcement - any factor that increases frequency of behaviour.

Positive reinforcement - rewards.

Negative reinforcement - removing something harmful.

• punishment - any factor that decreases frequency of behaviour.

Vicarious conditioning

Results from observing others.

You become motivated when you see someone else complete something they care about.

Outcomes must be valued by the individual.

Cognitive approaches

• self determination theory

• attribution theory

• social cognitive theory

Individuals interpretation of external environment, which has a powerful influence on behaviour.

Internal mechanisms have the ability to be altered.

Self determination theory

• key figures are Edward Deci and Richard Ryan.

• focuses on the extent to which behaviours are undertaken from an individuals own choice vs controlled by something external.

• 6 types of motivations on a continuum of self-determination (internally controlled to externally controlled)

6 types of motivation on a continuum of self-determination

• amotivation - the absence of motivation (ex. does not participate or “goes through the motions“)

• external regulation - a type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is done to fulfill some external contingency or demand (ex. being forced, the athlete just does something to please the coach)

• introjected regulation - a type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is done to avoid negative emotions, enhance positive emotions, or maintain self-worth (ex. exercise to reduce feelings of guilt)

• identified regulation - a type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is linked to important goals that stem from participating in the activity (ex. an athlete trains hard to achieve an Olympic standard)

• integrated regulation - a type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is symbolic of the individuals identity (ex. I exercise because “its who I am“)

• intrinsic regulation - the activity is inherently satisfying, enjoyable, interesting, stimulating, self-rewarding (ex. you enjoy the activity, someone runs because they enjoy running). Intrinsic has the highest level of self-determination, and is considered the highest form of healthy development.

Amotivation

Type 1.

The absence of motivation.

Not participating, or “going through the motions.”

External regulation

Type 2.

A type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is done to fulfill some external contingency or demand.

Being forced, an athlete runs hard in a workout to please the coach.

Introjected regulation

Type 3.

A type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is done to avoid negative emotions, enhance positive emotions, or maintain self-worth.

Exercise to reduce feelings of guilt.

Identified regulation

Type 4.

A type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is linked to important goals that stem from participating in the activity.

An athlete trains hard to achieve an Olympic standard.

Integrated regulation

Type 5.

A type of extrinsic motivation, the activity is symbolic of the individual’s identity.

I exercise because “it is who I am".”

Intrinsic regulation

Type 6.

The activity is inherently satisfying, enjoyable, interesting, stimulating, self-rewarding.

Has the highest level of self-determination, and is considered the highest form of healthy development.

Someone runs because they enjoy running, you enjoy the activity.

Attribution theory

• key figure is Bernard Weiner.

• focuses on how individuals explain success and failure.

• outcomes can be attributed to ability, task difficulty, effort, and luck.

• specifically, outcomes categorized as:

Locus of control - internal → ability and effort, external → task difficulty and luck.

Stability - stable → ability and task difficulty, unstable → effort and luck.

Social cognitive theory

• key figure is Albert Bandura.

• describes the factors that affect and determine behaviour.

• rooted in the belief that individuals are proactively engaged in their own development.

• motivation is an interplay of personal, behavioural, and environmental influences.

• key component is self-efficacy, situation specific form of self-confidence.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments.

Self-confidence.

Cognitive-behavioural approaches

• the father of cognitive-behavioural approach is Donald Meichenbaum.

• based on two central tendencies:

1 - our cognitions influence our emotions and behaviour.

2 - our behaviour can affect our thoughts and emotions.

Body image

How one sees, thinks, feels, and behaves regarding their body appearance and function.

A multidimensional construct with perceptual, cognitive, affective, and behavioural dimensions.

2 facets of self-esteem

• appearance - visual aspects of the body, what the body looks like.

• function - capabilities of the body, what the body can do.

4 dimensions of body image

• perpetual - how one sees.

• cognitive - how one feels.

• affective - how one feels.

• behavioural - how one behaves.

All can be experienced positively or negatively.

Perceptual dimension

How one sees.

Mental representations of one’s body appearance and function.

Defined by the accuracy between perceived and actual characteristics.

Applies to the body as a whole, or specific parts.

Cognitive dimension

How one thinks.

Refers to thoughts, beliefs, and evaluations of one’s body appearance and function.

Assessed through satisfaction or dissatisfaction with aspects relating to both appearance (thinness, muscularity) and function (strength, flexibility).

Affective dimension

How one feels.

Refers to feeling and emotions related to one’s body appearance and function.

Self report measures looking at frequency and intensity of emotion.

• social physique anxiety - anxiety from perceived or actual judgements by others.

• body-related self conscious emotions - shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride.

Behavioural dimension

How one behaves.

Involves decisions and actions based on perceptions, cognitions, and emotions related to appearance and function.

Focuses on avoidance or engagement in certain behaviours related to body image.

• appearance fixing - actions like body checking, wearing loose clothing, physical activity, dieting, substance use, cosmetic surgery.

• avoidance - avoiding negative body experiences and some situations in which we do physical activity (ex. mirrored rooms)

• positive rational acceptance - adaptive actions, such as positive self-care and rational self-talk.

Positive body image

Involves love, respect, appreciation, and acceptance for the body’s appearance and function.

Associated with a broad conceptualization of beauty, inner focus, and inner positivity.

Expressed through accurate body perceptions, positive thoughts and beliefs, positive feelings, and health-promoting behaviours.

Negative body image

Involves pathological aspects of body image. (eating disorders, body dysmorphia, muscle dysmorphia)

Expressed through inaccurate body perceptions, negative thoughts and beliefs, negative feelings, and risky or maladaptive behaviours.

More prominent.

3 common body image pathologies

• eating disorders

Abnormal eating habits resulting in insufficient or excessive food consumption.

• body dysmorphia

Over exaggerating and inaccurate perceptions of body flaws.

Preoccupation with flaws severely limits daily functioning and quality of life.

(body monitoring, withdrawal from others, and constant need for reassurance)

• muscle dysmorphia

Chronic preoccupation with insufficient muscularity and inadequate muscle mass.

Individuals perceive themselves as thinner than they are.

Involves excessive attention to muscularity, distress over body presentation.

(Extreme weight training, focus on diet, use of muscle-enhancing supplements and drugs)

Relationship between body image and sport, exercise, and physical activity

Interrelationship is complex and bidirectional.

Body image and physical activity influence each other.

• positive or negative body image can affect participation in physical activity.

• participation in physical activity can influence body image positively or negatively.

Understanding this relationship is crucial to improving physical activity experiences.

Body image is a central factor in the initiation, maintenance, and withdrawal of physical activity,

Self-esteem

Refers to an individuals subjective evaluation of their worth as a person.

Relatively stable, but often peaks around age 50 - 60.

A good predictor of success and wellbeing.

Often a goal of education and sport programs.

A hierarchical, multidimensional model of self-esteem

Global self-esteem

---

Domains of self-esteem

(academic abilities, physical appearance, athletic abilities, social acceptance, romantic, relationships, morality, mathematics, verbal abilities)

Bidirectional influence. (up and down)

Exercise and self-esteem model

Physical measure

Physical self-efficacy change (confidence to perform a specific physical task)

Physical competence to change

Either: Physical acceptance to change, or right to self-esteem

Costs associated with the pursuit of high self-esteem

• heightened negative emotions when experiencing failure.

• performance anxiety due to needing to prove one’s worth.

• putting others down to prop oneself up.

Self-compassion

The recognition of one’s own suffering and a desire to alleviate that suffering.

Compassion turned inward.

3 components of self-compassion

• self-kindness - treating oneself with kindness and understanding.

• common humanity - recognizing that we are not alone in our suffering.

• mindfulness - being in the moment and keeping our emotions in a balanced awareness.

2 kinds of self-compassion

• tender self-compassion - gentle, kindness, the ability to be with ourselves, healing from our imperfections.

• fierce self-compassion - taking action to do what’s best for our well-being, motivating change, doing something about the situation.

Self-compassion in sport

Tends to be related to sport performance, particularly athletes perceptions of their own performance.

Predicts a wide range of positive psychological factors in sport, such as enhanced body appreciation, self-esteem, and motivation.

Seems to offer a buffer to athletes’ negative experiences in sport, especially following setbacks.

Related to a number of psychological variables that support physical activity engagement and maintenance. (goal setting, exercise identity, motivation)

Stress

The nonspecific result of any demand upon the body, be the effect mental or somatic.

The perception depends on one’s appraisal of the environmental demand vs the perceived resources to cope with that demand.

• two people might experience different levels of stress when facing the same demand.

• the same person might experience different levels of stress at different times when facing the same demand.

5 general sources of stress

• physical - injury, illness

• psychological - pressure to perform, body issues

• environmental - time management, financial

• relationship - coach, parent, spouse

• life direction concerns

What emotion offers

Specific emotions tell us about what’s going on, the general concept of stress.

Anxiety

A discrete emotion resulting from uncertainty about what will happen, typically resulting from potential personal inadequacies.

A multidimensional negative emotion.

What anxiety is not

• unidimensional

• equivalent to arousal - blend of physiological and psychological activation of an individuals automatic nervous system

Characteristics of anxiety

• elicited following an appraisal of a situation or event

• universal

• discrete facial expression

• distinct physiology

• the action tendency is to escape or avoid

State anxiety

Associated with worries and apprehension that change from moment to moment.

Intensity of anxiety at a specific time.

Trait anxiety

Individuals general tendency to experience elevation in state anxiety when exposed to stressors.

Stable part of an individuals personality, predisposing them to perceive situations as physically or psychologically threatening.

2 components of anxiety

• cognitive anxiety

Reflects concern/worries and reduced ability to focus/concentrate.

• somatic anxiety

Physical component of anxiety that refers to peoples perceptions of their body state.

(clammy hands, racing heart, butterflies in the stomach)

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT)

Describes the relationship between components of anxiety and sport performance.

Graph.

• addresses the relationship between cognitive and somatic components of anxiety and sport performance.

• addresses how the relationship between anxiety and sport performance may change across phases of competition.

Somatic anxiety MAT

Inverted U relationship with performance.

Cognitive anxiety MAT

Negative linear relationship with sport performance.

Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Theory (IZOF)

Best sport performances are likely to occur with optimal levels of state anxiety, and that optimal level is a “zone.”

Specific to each individual, some athletes have a wide sone, others have a narrow zone.

Athletes within their optimal state anxiety zone will be more likely o have better athletic performance. Performance is likely impaired if anxiety is outside of this zone.

Important in understanding the relationship between anxiety and performance differs between athletes and that anxiety is not always detrimental to sport performance.