ILRID 1535: Sociology of Work Final Flashcards

organizational sociology

examines how group structure influences, limits, and defines human interactions within a given organizational context

assesses how organizations compete and cooperate in an environment and are tied within networks and hierarchies of personal, demographic, and legal relationships

Lecture 13

three perspectives on organizations

rational systems

natural systems

open systems

Lecture 13

rational systems

organizations are goal oriented bureaucracies (a focus on procedure)

collectives oriented to the pursuit of relatively specific goals and exhibiting relatively highly formalized social structures

carefully constructed to achieve pre-determined outcomes with maximum efficiency

characterized by a focus on data, optimization, and implementation

Lecture 13

natural systems

organizations are messy collectives that may pursue multiple goals

collectives whose participants share a common interest in the survival of the system and who engage in collective activities, informally structured, to secure this end

member interactions may be disordered and complex

may pursue multiple goals

potential disconnect between expressed goals and actual goals

orgs. are “social groups” attempting to adapt and persist

Lecture 13

open systems

organizational boundaries are flexible, organizations are dependent upon, and react to, external factors

systems of interdependent activities linking shifting coalitions of participants; the systems are embedded in the environments in which they operate

boundaries are less well defined, for instance through the use of contractors or key suppliers

dependent on resources/exchanges with external actors

the org (ideally) self-regulates in response to external changes

Lecture 13

organizations shape

labor market inequality (who is hired/fired, what the job pays)

the production of goods and services (what is offered, how the firm is structured to achieve core goals)

workplace culture (how people behave, how behavioral differences shape responses to challenges)

information access (which cross-group connections provide novel info, what network structures grant disproportionate power)

responses to external environments (what the firm will do when there are new laws, competitors, or tech)

Lecture 13

coworking spaces

describe an arrangement to which people from different teams and companies come together to work in a single shared space

originated in the early 2000s as an alternative to public spaces

advantages: flexibility, connections with others, positive work environment, basic amenities (electricity, internet, snacks)

disadvantages: limited sense of community, expensive, limited in-person face time with colleagues located elsewhere

Section 8

coworking space downsides

scholars have found that few social relationships tend to emerge from exchanges in these spaces

users are too busy or competitive to form lasting relationships

can lead to lonelness

may promote inequality

masculine culture is off-putting to some women

Section 8

bridging connections

join dissimilar individuals

Section 8

bonding connections

join like individuals, typically along demographic dimensions, class, interests, education, etc

promoted by coworking spaces

Section 8

structural inequality

a system of procedures and processes that advantage or disadvantage different demographic groups

“systemic inequality,” “institutional inequality”

labor market inequalities “are the macrolevel result of a whole range of microlevel decisions by employers and prospective employees”

Lecture 14

supply side inequality

individual’s choices (subject to constraint) that may lead to disparate outcomes

eg: education investments, selection of job or employer, persistence through adversity

not victim blaming, systemic factors share available choices

rarely targeted by public policies

Lecture 14

demand side inequality

(typically organizational) factors that may lead to disparate outcomes

eg: decision maker bias/prejudice, recruitment and selection systems that reward different things, promotion and termination decisions

even ostensibly “merit-based” systems may produce unequal outcomes b/c of supply-side processes

targeted more frequently by public policies

Lecture 14

physical capital

tangible assets that may be used in the production process

eg: buildings, machinery, computers, tools and equipment

Lecture 14

human capital

the economic value of an individual’s skill set

eg: education, training, intelligence, experience

“any stock of knowledge or characteristics the worker has (either innate or acquired) that contributes to his or her ‘productivity’"

cannot be separated from a person

education and training are two of the most valued

Lecture 14

firm specific human capital

skills that solely contribute to productivity within the current employer

eg: proprietary computer programs, skills to operate company-specific technology, floorplan knowledge

expect greater firm training for skills that are non-transferable to other employers

Lecture 14

general human capital

skills that are beneficial to the worker, and frequently portable across employers

eg: training in public speaking, widely-used programming language

few employers today offer to pay for graduate school

Lecture 14

two views on education

education imparts skills: employers pay higher wages for workers with greater abilities and productivity

education provides a “signal”: signaling theory: even if schooling were to provide limited skills, it may be valuable to employers as a means of finding high ability workers

this view would apply if high ability people find it easier to attend school (lower costs due to scholarships, or classes require less effort)

Lecture 14

the sheepskin effect

one piece of evidence that diplomas function, in part, as signals comes from comparing newly-minted bachelors graduates with those that are very nearly complete

completed bachelor degrees tend to be valued far more highly by employers relative to those that are very nearly complete

Lecture 14

supply side sources of pay variation

compensating differentials: a worker decides to accept a job offer at an employer with more pleasant working conditions and benefits, but a lower salary

labor market imperfections: workers may fill job vacancies at low/high productivity employers

occupational choice: a worker uses her law degree to get an investment banking job on Wall Street, rather than working in the less-lucrative non-profit sector

Lecture 14

labor markets

workers are not standardized

a multiplicity of markets

no central clearing house

continuity of the employment relationship

workers deliver themselves along with their labor

workers (may) have bargaining power

Lecture 15

bias in modern organizations

often subtle, indirect, and frequently outside of conscious awareness

can be hard to document and litigate for certain employment events

more common during recruitment and hiring

less common during dismissal

Lecture 15

three general theories of stereotypes

taste-based discrimination

statistical discrimination

status characteristics

Lecture 15

taste based discrimination

decision makers may be biased against interacting with a particular group

primarily due to aversion, similar to overt prejudice

may be intentional or unconscious

the first to advance that in the long run, a competitive market should eliminate discriminatory practices, as organizations with biased decision makers will loose out on talented workers

Lecture 15

statistical discrimination

draws on relevant group-level performance data to assess an individual that is a member of that group (similar to “profiling”)

eg: an employer has data on current worker productivity broken down by demographic groups. an employer that _______ _________ would use this information to draw inferences about the expected productivity of future hires that are members of the same groups

Lecture 15

status characteristics theory

decision makers may hold expectations about the idea behaviors and relative performance of different demographic groups

not necessarily associated with observed group-level differences

similar to biased expectations that cloud judgements

_______ _______, such as age, race, sex, may be associated with cultural beliefs. these beliefs may relate social standing and ability/skill expectations to particular demographic groups

decision makers may thus expect high/low performance from members possessing different status characteristics

Lecture 15

approaches to minimize bias

masking

job relevant information

competency assessment tools

transparency programs

accountability programs

self reflection

Lecture 15

masking

hide applicant demographic characteristics during assessments

“blinding”

Lecture 15

job relevant information

decision makers provided with adequate data on applicants’ human capital and experiences are less likely to reference demographic characteristics

Lecture 15

competency assessment tools

objective and quantifiable performance measures aligned with job-relevant outcomes

in advance of hiring, establish questions and evaluation criteria that will be uniformly applied to all candidates

Lecture 15

transparency programs

publicy disclose data on the applicant pool and selection decisions to make bias difficult to obscure

Lecture 15

accountability programs

make a decision maker responsible for equitable judgements

tie bonuses or career progression to equitable hiring

Lecture 15

self reflection

be aware of first impressions

assess whether they are relevant to an individual’s job/performance

Lecture 15

hiring algorithms

seek to help decision makers screen out applicants assessed to lack certain quantifiable job requirements

Section 9

hidden workers

individuals who want to work, but are consistently screened out by algorithms

Section 9

biased hiring algorithms

sourcing stage: when placing ads, algorithms have been found to selectively target certain groups, reinforcing the demographic make up of certain jobs

screening: algorithms are often trained on past hiring decisions, which may unintentionally formalize past biased judgements

interviewing: algorithms can assess video/audio feeds to infer personnel characteristics based on diction, posture, and enthusiasm. concern that evaluations are rarely job-relevant

Section 9

algorithmic rating criteria best practices

is the rating criteria:

transparent?

relevant to the position?

weighted correctly?

determined in advance of candidate assessments?

developed using employer-specific training data?

Lecture 16

transaction costs

the expenses incurred when buying/selling

can be reduced through in-house activities and economies of scale

firms allow for coordination

Lecture 16

bureaucracies

a hierarchical organization characterized by rules and regulations

Lecture 16

rationality

social actions shaped by reason and calculation, with the further pursit of one’s interests

increase in this may force individuals into systems based on efficiency, termed an “iron cage”

Lecture 16

Weber’s Idealized Types of Rationality

substantive: a person’s actions are based on their feelings or emotions

practical: a person accepts given realities and determines efficient means of addressing needs

formal: traditional or conventional, shaped by habituation

theoretical: abstract concepts or beliefs guide actions

Lecture 16

substantive rationality

a person’s actions are based on their feelings or emotions

Lecture 16

practical rationality

a person accepts given realities and determines efficient means of addressing needs

Lecture 16

formal rationality

traditional or conventional, shaped by habituation

Lecture 16

theoretical rationality

abstract concepts or beliefs guide actions

Lecture 16

rationalization in modern societies

practical, formal, and theoretical rationalization has generally come to override substantive rationalization

Lecture 16

scientific management

the analysis and redesign of workflows to improve economic efficiency, with specific attention to labor productivity

believes the interests of employees and employers are aligned

advocated good pay and adequate breaks for workers, but also viewed low-skill workers rather negatively

“credited with destroying the soul of work, of dehumanizing factories, making [people] into automatons”

Lecture 16

scientific management characterized

by:

empiricism and efficiency

transformation of craft production into mass production

standardization of best practices

knowledge transfer from skilled workers into tools, processes, and documentation

Lecture 16

emotional labor

tasks in which a worker produces (or manages) an emotional state in themselves or others

worker’s emotions may be suppressed through routinized performances

Lecture 16

surface acting

where an individual’s underlying emotions or feelings run counter to how they’re behaving at work

tends to reduce personal well-being and job performance outcomes

Lecture 16

deep acting

where an individual aligns required and true feelings

tends to be unrelated to measures of personal well-being but does correspond to positive job performance

Lecture 16

McDonaldization

efficiency: the minimization of energy or cost used to achieve an outcome

predictability: consistency and a lack of surprises for consumers

calculability: an emphasis on quantifiable measures

substitution of nonhuman for human technology: the deskilling of work by humans

control over uncertainty: the minimization of risk

Lecture 16

make or buy

should an organization “make” something in house or “buy” it premade from the market?

buy when:

• its less expensive

• organization’s production facilities are limited

• suppliers have specific expertise

• desire to maintain stable workforce

make when:

• its less expensive to make than buy

• desire to learn/integrate operations

• need to exert direct control over production/quality

• suppliers unreliable

• secrecy required

Lecture 17

vertical integration

control over more stages of the supply chain

Lecture 17

horizontal integration

increasing market share by expanding into the same level of the supply chain

Lecture 17

job design

details specific job expectations, responsibilites, and qualifications

helpful for hiring, training, and developing performance metrics

Lecture 17

formal structure

refers to the official division of responsibilities, definitions of how work is to be done, and reporting relationships

frequently details authority and lines of communication

allows members to identify specific responsibilities and allocate their time to advance work-related tasks

coordinates activities and minimizes duplication of effort

generally well-defined and inflexible

often inert

Lecture 17

departmentalization

the subdivision of a business into units

integration and differentiation

Lecture 17

integration

the basis by which jobs are grouped together so that common tasks can be coordinated

Lecture 17

differentiation

distinguishes different jobs from one another

Lecture 17

common bases of departmentalization

function/process

product

geography

customer

many organizations use multiple types

often reveals what types of division are important to the organization

Lecture 17

chain of command

a company’s hierarchy of reporting relationships— from the bottom to the top of an organization, who must answer to whom

Lecture 17

authority

the power or right to give others, make decisions, and enforce obedience

Lecture 17

unity of command

a principle that any given subordinate should report to no more than one supervisor

the corporate ladder goes from top to bottom without disconnect

Lecture 17

span of control

the number of employees that a manager can efficiently and effectively direct

has implications for the size and composition of groups in a firm

a narrow may allow for closer supervision

a wider can result in a more efficient organization (associated with reduced bureaucracy and lower management costs)

Lecture 17

centralized

“tall”

decisions are made at the top and communicated down via authority relationships

use when goals/activities are generally clear

may suffer from bureaucracy, excessive management

eg: Federal Government, US military

advantages:

extremely efficient

can produce fast and consistent responses to well understood problems/solutions

disadvantages:

can suffer from bureaucracy

highly inert

potential for limited communcation

Lecture 17

decentralized

“flat”

decisions/tasks completed through groups with similarly-ranked members

suggestive that indviduals closer to problems may have better knowledge/info

use when organization is small, tasks require innovation or entrepreneurial solutions

eg: universities, startups

advantages:

often excel at generating diverse knowledge and/or leveraging diverse expertise

more responsive to dynamic or unclear tasks/environments

disadvantages;

job tasks and career advancement pathways are often unclear

often less efficient at routine tasks due to workforce redundancies and/or unclear responsibilities

substantial coordination challenges (such as, this structure rarely scales well to large organizational sizes)

Lecture 17

matrix organizations

a hybrid between product- and function- based structures

each person reports to two managers: a department manager and a project manager

advantages: facilitates coordination and communication

disadvantages: bureaucracy, role conflict, role ambiguity

Section 10

boundaryless organizations

entities that minimize barriers between departments in the organization

many approaches/sub-types exist, but these employees in such organizations often form and disband work groups as tasks arise

often easier to implement in young firms with few members

advantages: adaptable, responsive to change

disadvantages: chaotic, career management is unclear

Section 10

modular organizations

retain only value-creating and strategic functions

most all other nonessential functions are externalized

emerged out of an extreme focus on investing in firms’ core competencies

advantages: strong focus on the firm’s exceptional capabilities

disadvantages: externalizing other functions introduces potentially unforseen risks and costs

Section 10

social capital

relationships that provide benefits (typically through resources and/or signals)
eg: reciprocity or help, information flows, resources

represents the resources (actual or virtual) accruing to an actor by virtue of network positions and relationships

may also provide signals of an actor’s trust, ability, status

not “owned” by one actor (property of some mutual connection)

concept suggests that social relationships may translate into market rewards

Lecture 18

social network

a set of relations, associated meanings, and expectations that connect actors

Lecture 18

social ties

connections between actors

Lecture 18

six degrees of separation

a measure of social distance suggesting that any two individuals may typically be six or fewer social connections away from each other

Lecture 18

weak ties

connections to acquaintances

more likely to be “bridges” to other clusters and thus provide novel (unique) information

may more frequently connect to a distant cluster of contacts

Lecture 18

strong ties

close family, friends

may be more likely to help, but are less likely to provide novel info

generally involve greater time commitments

tend to connect similar individuals

Lecture 18

tie strength

interaction frequency

emotional intensity

mutual confiding

reciprocal services

Lecture 18

Forbidden Triad

used to justify Granovettor’s argument regarding tie strength and information access

if A has a strong tie to B and C, then it is unlikely B and C will not also share a tie

therefore a strong tie can never act as a bridge between network clusters

Lecture 18

network bridges

a connection in a network which provides the only path between two clusters

expected to be weak ties

Lecture 18

network centrality

actors that are more central in a network may be advantaged relative to others

more likely to learn about information quickly (though not necessarily access unique information), and be early adopters of things that spread through the network

greater visibility, more influential

Lecture 18, Section 11

structural hole

a gap between two actors (typically clusters of actors) within a network

an actor that “bridges” this with a network connection may realize certain benefits if they represent the sole path between otherwise disconnected groups

Lecture 19

efficiency

desirable network characteristics

maximize the number of non redundant contacts to increase the yield in structural holes per contact

“there is little gain from a new contact redundant with existing contacts”

Lecture 19

effectiveness

identify, and maintain relationships with “primary contacts,” individuals who are ports of access to clusters of people

Lecture 19

four caveats to networks

brokerage returns are a probability, not a certainty

network advantages are somewhat independent of personality

personal engagement shapes outcomes

job and type of work shapes outcomes

• network position seems to produce greater rewards for individuals in unique and high-ranking jobs

Lecture 19

tertius gaudens

“the third who benefits”

one party benefits from a conflict (or disjointed exchange) among two or more others

Lecture 19

tertius lugens

“the third who joins”

an actor that seeks to bring others together

Lecture 19

personal power

results from individual characteristics

may include individual attributes, human capital, experience, and effort

Section 11

positional power

results from the formal roles an individual may hold in an organization or society

eg: those at the top of a hierarchy, or those with decision making authority

Section 11

relational power

derived from the (personal and professional) relationships an individual has with others

Section 11

network closure

the degree to which a network has many dense interconnected ties

high levels = a lot of dense interconnected ties

lead to high levels of trust and support

assist with coordination

Section 11

network range

a measure of contact variety in an individual’s network

high range indicates that contacts hold a variety of group affiliations

greater variety is associated with career success

Section 11

frame switching

the process by which individuals may self-moderate so they can be seen as in group members of different communities

requires effort and skill for said individuals to be seen as “authentic” members of multiple groups

Section 11

organization specialization

in modern economies, organizations are increasingly specialized

prioritizing core practices or products

Lecture 20

firm’s competitive advantage

cost leadership: the organization offers a product/service at a lower price than competitors

differentiation: the organization offers a product/service that is dissimilar relative to competitor offerings, unique offerings allow an organization to stand out from competitors

focus: (segmentation strategy): the organization targets a market niche rather than seeking to engage all possible customers

Lecture 20

virtual organizations

“a temporary network of independent companies — suppliers, customers, even erstwhile rivals — linked by information technology to share skills, costs, and access one another’s markets”

extreme focus on core activities has led many organizations to form relationships with key external partners

strategies contributing to a rise in these:

• subcontracting

• offshoring

• supply chains

• platform capitalism

Lecture 20

cost leadership

the organization offers a product/service at a lower price than competitors

Lecture 20

differentiation

the organization offers a product/service that is dissimilar relative to competitor offerings

unique offerings allow an organization to stand out from competitors

Lecture 20

focus

(segmentation strategy)

the organization targets a market niche rather than seeking to engage all possible customers

Lecture 20

subcontracting

outsourcing

hiring other organizations to complete certain “non-essential” business operations

often involves the externalization of specific jobs and/or work functions

central to this distinction is the delineation of firm boundaries

Lecture 20

vertical disintegration

occurs when business functions are moved to an external firm rather than keeping production in house

eg: user firm: CEO —> other divisions; subcontractor: CEO —> seamstresses

Lecture 20