Jacksonian Era

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The Election of 1824

- "Era of Good Feelings" -> ended in political bad feelings -> bitterly contested & divisive presidential election

- Old presidential caucus system of choosing prez shut down -> 4 candidates from Dem Repub party of Jefferson campaigned for presidency John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, & Andrew Jackson

- Controversy -> 1824 election, Jackson won more popular votes, but Adams won more electoral votes

- House of reps had to choose prez from among top 3 candidates

- Henry Clay used his influence on the House to provide Adams of MA w/ enough votes to in election

- When Prez Adams appted Clay as Sec of State, Jackson & followers charged that decision of voters had been foiled by secret political maneuvers

- Angry Jackson supported accused Adams & Clay of making a "corrupt bargain"

President John Quincy Adams

- His presidency is ultimately a failure

- Citizens didn't like Adams

- Adams further alienated followers of Jackson when he asked Cong for for internal improvements, aid to manufacturing, & even a national university and astronomical observatory

• But Cong denied most of his proposals

- Jacksonians viewed all these measures as waste of & violation of Constitution

• Most signif -> in 1828, Cong patched together new tariff law, which generally satisfied northern manufacturers but alienated southern planters

• Southerners denounced it as "tariff of abominations"

The Revolution of 1828

- Adams sought reelection in 1828, Jacksonians ready to use discontent of southerners & westerners & new campaign tactics to sweep Jackson in to officer

- Jackson's party resorted to smearing the prez & accusing Adams's wife of being born out of wedlock

- Supporters of Adams retaliated in kind, accusing Jackson's wife of adultery

- Voter turnout soared

- Jackson won, carrying every state west of Appalachians

• His reputation as war hero & man of western frontier accounted for his victory more than the positions he took on issues of the time

- Adams is in Cong --> his work in Cong is remembered more

The Rise of a Democratic Society

- Among White majority in Amer society, ppl shared belief in principle of equality (equality for White males)

- These beliefs ignored enslavement of most Afr Amers & discrimination against anyone who wasn't White

- Equality of opportunity would, at least in theory, allow a young man of humble origins to ride as far as his natural talent & industry would take him

- Hero of the age = 'self-made man'

- New equivalent of 'self-made woman'

- Restrictions, both legal & cultural, limited what women could do

- But by end of 1840s, feminists would take up theme of equal rights & insist that it should be applied to both men & women

Politics of the Common Man

- Btwn 1824 & 1840, politics moved out of fine homes of rich southern planters & northern merchants who dominated govt in past eras

- Several factors contributed to spread of democracy-> suffrage laws, changes in political parties & campaigns, improved education, & inc in newspaper circulation

Universal White Male suffrage

- Western states newly admitted to the Union- Indiana, Illinois, & Missouri- adopted state consitutions that allowed all White males to vote & hold office

- omitted any religious/property qualifications for voting

• most eastern states followed suit, eliminating such restrictions

• As a result, throughout country, all White males could vote regardless of their social class/religion

- Voting for prez in from 350k to 2.4 mill in 1840 (nearly 7-fold in just 16 years)

• Mostly as result of changes in voting laws

• In addition -> political officers could be held by ppl in lower & middle ranks of society

Party Nominating Conventions

- In past, candidates for office had been nominated by either state legislatures of by “King Caucus" -> closed door meeting of political party's leaders in Cong

- Common citizens -> no opportunity to participate

- In 1830s, hwvr, caucuses were replaced by nominating conventions

- Party politicians & voters would gather in large meeting hall to nominate party's candidates

- Anti-Masonic Party was 1st to hold such a convention

- This method was more open to popular participation, hence more democratic

- In prez election of 1832 -> in SC used old system in which state legislatures chose electors for prez

- All other states adopted more democratic method of allowing voters to choose state's slate of prez electors

Changing Two-Party System

- Popular election of presidential electors- and, indirectly, prez- had imp consequences for 2-party system

- Campaigns for prez now had to be conducted on national scale

- To organize these campaigns, candidates needed large political parties

Rise of Third Parties

- While only large national parties (Dems & Whigs of 1830s) could hope to win presidency other political parties also emerged

- Anti-Masonic Party & Workingmen's Party reached out to grps of ppl who prev had shown little interest in politics

• Anti-Masons attacked secret society of Masons & accused them of belonging to an anti-democratic elite

• Workingmen's tried to invite artisans & skilled laborers into political organization

Popular Campaigning

- Candidates for office directed campaigns to interests & prejudices of common ppl

- Politics also became form of local entertainment

• Campsings fo 1830s/40s included parades of floats & marching bands & large rallies where voters were treated to free ood/drink

- Neg saide to new campaign techniques was that candidates would often resort to personal attacks & i gnore issues in order to appeal to masses

• Ex. Might attack opponent's "aristocratic airs" making him seem unfriendly to "the common man"

Spoils System

- Winning gov't jobs became lifeblood of party orgs

- At national lvl, Prez Jackson believed appointing ppl to fed jobs (as postmasters, for example) strictly according to whether they had actively campaigned for Dem Party

- Any prev holder of office who wasn’t Dem was fired & replaced by loyal Dem

- Practice of dispensing govt jobs in return for party loyalty = spoils system

• in war, victors seize spoils, or wealth, of the defeated

Rotation of Officeholders

- Jackson believed in system of rotation in office

- By limiting person to 1 term in office, he could then appt some other deserving Dem in his place

- Jackson defended replacement/rotation of officeholders as democratic reform

• "No man has any more intrinsic claim to office than another"

- Both spoils system & rotation of officeholders affirmed democratic ideal that one man = as good as another & that ordinary Amers were capable of holding any gov't office

• These beliefs also helped build two-party system

Historical Perspectives: Jacksonian Era Revolutionized American Politics

- Traditional view = Jackson's election began era of common man, when masses of newly enfranchised voters drove out the entrenched ruling class & elected one of their own

• Revolution of 1828 -> victory of democratic West against aristocratic East

Historical Perspectives: Jacksonian Era DIDN’T Revolutionize American Politics

Opposing view = 19th-Cent Whig historians viewed Jackson as despot whose appeal to uneducated masses & "corrupt" spoils system threatened republic

Jacksonian Era & Urban Workers

- Jacksonian democracy relied as much on support of eastern urban workers as on western farmers

- Jackson's coalition of farmers & workers foreshadowed similar coalition that elected another Dem prez, Roosevelt, in 1930s

Jacksonian Era Cultural Influence

- Inc voter participation in local elections in years before 1828 & didn't peak until election of 1840, an election that Whig party won

- Some historians argue that religion & ethnicity were more important than economic class in shaping voice

• Ex. Catholic immigrants objected imposition of Puritan moral code (e.g. temperance) by native-born Protestants

Jacksonian Era Economic Clash

- Recent historians see Jackson's popularity in 1830 as reaction of subsistence farmers & urban workers against threatening forces of economic changes

- Capitalist, or market, economy was taking shape in early 19th cent

- This market rev divided the electorate

- Some, including many Whigs, wanted greater role for business owners

- Jackson's veto of bank captured popular fears abt rise of capitalism

Andrew Jackson Background

- Became symbol of emerging working & middle class ("common man")

- Gained fame as Indian fighter & as hero of Battle of New Orleans

- Wealthy planter & slaveowner, but was born poor

- Hwvr, never lost rough manners of the frontier

• Chewed tobacco

• Fought several duels

• Displayed violent temper

- 1st prez since Washington w/o college education

- Self-made, extraordinary ordinary man

Jackson Presidential Power

- Jackson presented himself as representative of all ppl & protector of common man against abuses of pwr by rich & privileged

- Frugal Jeffersonian, who opposed inc fed spending & wanted to reduce national debt

- vetoed more bills in Cong than all six preceding presidents combined

• Ex. Vetoed use of fed $$ to construct Maysville Road w/c it was wholly within one state, KY, the home state of Jackson's rival, Henry Clay

- Jefferson's closest advisors known as "kitchen cabinet"

• Didn't belong to his official cabinet

• b/c of them, the appt cabinet had less influence on policy than earlier presidents

Peggy Eaton Affair

- Wife of Jackson's secretary of war (Peggy) -> target of malicious gossip by other cabinet wives, much as Jackson's recently deceased wife had been in the 1828 campaign

- When Jackson tried to force the cabinet wives to accept Peggy Eaton socially, most of cabinet resigned

- This controversy contributed to resignation of Jackson's VP, John C. Calhoun, a year later

- For remaining loyal during crisis, Martin Van Buren of NY chosen as VP for Jackson's 2nd term

Indian Removal Act CONTEXT

- Jackson's concept of democracy didn't extend to Natives

- Jackson's sympathized w/ land hungry citizens who were impatient to take over lands held by Natives

- Jackson thought most humane solution = compel Natives to leave their traditional homelands & resettle west of MS

- 1830 -> signed into law Indian Removal Act, which forced resettlement of many thousands of Amer Indians

- By 1835, most eastern tribes reluctantly complied & moved west

- The Bureau of Indian Affairs was created in 1836 to assist resettled tribes

Indian Removal Act IMPACT

- Most politicians supported policy of Indian removal

- GA & other states passed laws requiring Cherokees to migrate to the West

- When Cherokees challenged GA in courts, the Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) that Cherokees were 't foreign nation w/ right to sue in fed court

- But in 2nd case, Worcester v. GA (1832), high court ruled that laws of GA had no force within Cherokee territory

- In clash btwn state laws & fed courts, Jackson sided w/ states

- Court = pwrless to enforce decision w/o prez support

- Trail of Tears

Trail of Tears

- Most Cherokees repudiated settlement of 1835, which provided land in Indian territory

- 1838, after Jackson left office, US Army forced 15k Cherokees to leave GA

- Hardships while moving westward caused death of 4k Cherokees

Nullification Crisis CONTEXT

- Jackson favored states' rights, but not disunion

- 1828-> SC legislature declared increased tariff of 1828 (Tariff of Abominations) to be unconstitutional

- In during so, it affirmed theory advanced by Jackson's 1st VP, Calhoun

- According to "nullification theory"-> each state had right to decide whether to obey fed law of to declare it null/void (of no effect)

- Following Webster-Hayne debate, Jackson declared his own position: "Our federal Union must be preserved"

- 1832-> Calhoun's SC inc tensions by holding special convention to nullify both hated 1828 tariff & new tariff of 1832

• Convention passed resolution forbidding collection of tariffs within state

Webster-Hayne Debate

- 1830-> conflicting views of nature of fed Union under Constitution led to dramatic exchange of speeches btwn Senators Daniel Webster of MA & Robert Hayne of SC

- Hayne: rights of states

- Webster: attacked idea that any state could defy/leave Union

Nullification Crisis JACKSON’S REACTION

• Jackson's reaction:

• told secretary of war to prepare military

• persuaded Cong to pass Force Bill

  • gave him authority to act against SC

• issued Proclamation to the People of South Carolina

• Stated nullification & disunion = treason

- But fed troops didn't march in this crisis

- Jackson opened door for compromise by suggesting that Cong lower the tariff

- SC postponed nullification & later formally rescinded it after Cong enacted new tariff along lines suggested by prez + some adjustments to appeal to Northern industrialists

Opposition to Anti Slavery Efforts

- Jackson's strong defense of fed authority forced militant advocated of states' rights to retreat

- On other issue, hwvr, militant southerners had Jackson's support

- Prez shared southerner's alarm abt growing antislavery movement in North

- Prez used exec pwr to stop antislavery literature from being sent thru US mail

- Southern Jacksonians would not extend democracy to Afr Amers

Bank Veto

- Another major issue of Jackson's presidency = rechartering of Bank of the US

- Although bank & branches privately owned, it received fed deposits & attempted to serve public purpose by cushioning the ups & downs of national economy

- Bank's prez, Nicholas Biddle, managed it effectively

• His arrogance, hwvr, contributed to popular suspicion that bank abused its pwrs & served interests of only the wealthy

• Jackson shared in suspicion & believed bank = unconstitutional

- Henry Clay, Jackson's chief political opponent, favored bank

• 1832 (election yr)-> Clay challenged Jackson by persuading majority in Cong to pass bank recharter bill

• Jackson promptly vetoed it, denouncing bank as priv monopoly that enriched wealthy & foreigners at expense of common ppl & "hydra corruption"

• Voters unexpectedly backed Jackson, who won reelection w/ more than 3/4 electoral vote

New Two-Party System Under Jackson

- Brief one-party system during Monroe's presidency (Era of Good Feelings) had given way to two-party system under Jackson

- Supporters of Jackson = Democrats

• Old Dem-Repub party of Jefferson

- Supports of Henry Clay = Whigs

• Resembled Fed party of Hamilton

• Supported spending fed $$ for internal improvements (roads, canals, harbors)

- New parties reflected changed conditions of Jacksonian era

• Dems & Whigs alike were challenged to respond to relentless westward expansion of nation & emergence of industrial economy

Jackson’s Second Term Overview

Jackson moved to destroy Bank of US

• Pet Banks

• Specie Circular

Pet Banks

- Jackson attacked bank by withdrawing all fed funds

- Aided by Sec of Treasury Roger Taney, he transferred funds to various state banks (Jackson's critics called "pet banks")

Specie Circular

- As result of both Jackson's financial policies & feverish purchase of western lands by many speculators -> prices for land & various goods became greatly inflated

- Jackson hoped to check the inflationary trend by issuing presidential order known as Specie Circular

• Required all future purchases of fed lands to be made in specie (gold & silver) rather than paper banknotes

- Soon after, banknotes lost value & land sales plummeted

- Right after Jackson left office, financial crisis (Panic of 1837) plunged nation's economy into depression

Election of 1836

- Jackson followed 2 term tradition (didn't seek 3rd term)

- To make sure his policies were carried out even in retirement -> Jackson persuaded Dem party to nominate loyal VP, Van Buren (master of practical politics)

- Fearing defeat, Whig Party adopted unusual strategy of nominating 3 candidates from 3 diff regions

• Whigs hoped to throw election into House of Reps, where each state had one vote in selection of prez

- Whig strategy failed, & Van Buren took 58% of electoral vote

Prez Van Buren & Panic of 1837

- Banks closing doors, nation suffering from economic crisis as soon as Buren in office

- Jackson's opposition to rechartering Bank of US was only one of many causes of depression

• but Whigs quick to blame Dems for their laissez-faire economics, which advocated for littler federalist involvement in economy

The “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” Campaign of 1840

- In election of 1840 -> Whigs = in strong position to defeat Van Buren & Jacksonian dems

• Voters unhappy w/ bad state of economy

• Whigs better organized than Dems & had popular war hero, William Henry "Tippecanoe" Harrison, as prez candidate

- To symbolize Harrison's humble origins, they put log cabins on wheels & paraded them down streets of cities & towns

- Also passed out hard cider for voters to drink & buttons & hats to wear

- Name calling as propaganda device also marked 1840 campaign

• Whigs attacked "Martin Van Ruin" as aristocrat w/ tase for foreign wines

- Remarkable 78% of eligible voters (white males) cast ballots

Harrison’s Presidency

- Harrison & VP John Tyler of VA (former's states' rights Dem who joined Whigs), took 53% of popular vote and most of the electoral votes in all 3 sections: North, South, West

- This election est Whigs as national party

- Hwvr, Harrison died of pneumonia in less than a month after taking office

• John Tyler became first VP to succeed to presidency

  • Not much of a Whig

  • Vetoed Whigs' national bank bills & other legislation & favored southern and expansionist Dems during balance of his term

Democrat Leaders

- Andrew Jackson

- Martin VanBuren

- James K. Polk

Supporters of Democrats

- small business owners (merchants)

- workers in Northeast

- Southern planters who were suspicious of Northern industrial growth

- westerners, usually of southern roots, who favored predominantly agrarian economy & opposed development of pwrful institutions in their region

- tended to be ppl of modest means, the middle class, & lower middle class

- support from immigrants groups, particularly Irish & German Catholics

- Catholics resented such Whiggish reform movements as temperance, public education, & enforced Sabbath observance, seeing them as attempts to impose Protestant moral standards onto them

Democratic View of Federal Gov’t

- should be limited in pwr

- rights of states should be protected

- nation should work to eliminate all social & economic arrangements that served to entrench privilege & stifle common man

Democratic View on Material Progress & Modernization

- believed in necessity of material progress but suspicious of proposals for stimulating modern commercial & industrial growth

• associated such growth w/ commercial creation of menacing institutions, ex. Bank of US

- suspicious of tech advances, e.g. railroads, telegraphs, manufacturing machinery

- opposed modernizing institutions ex. chartered banks & corporations, state-supported internal improvements, even public schools

Democratic View on Territorial Expansion

favored territorial expansion which would widen opportunities for Amers

Whig Leaders

- Henry Clay

- Daniel Webster

- John C. Calhoun

Whig Supporters

- substantial merchants & manufacturers of the Northeast

- wealthier planters of the South, those who favored commercial development & the strengthening of ties w/ North

- ambitious farmers & rising commercial class of West, usually migrants from the Northeast who advocated internal improvements, expanding trade, & rapid economic progress

- tended to be wealthier than Dems, have more aristocratic backgrounds, & very more commercially ambitious

- supported by evangelical Protestants who embraced religious & cultural outlook that encouraged constant development & improvement

- saw new immigrant communities as threat to progress, believing these groups needed to be taught “American” ways

Whiggish View on Fed Gov’t

- fed gov’t pwr should be expanded by encouraging industrial & commercial development and weaving the nation together into a consolidated economic system

Whiggish View on Material Progress & Modernization

- embraced material progress

- supported tech advances such as railroads, telegraphs, & manufacturing machinery

- supported modernization

- attributed value to the enterprising, modernizing forces in society → the entrepreneurs & institutions that most effectively promoted growth

- favored measure to est banks & charter corporations

- vision of nation rising to world greatness as commercial & manufacturing pwr

Whiggish View on Territorial Expansion

Urged prudent & cautious movement into West, fearful that too rapid territorial growth would produce instability