Chapter 4: Development

Period of zygote

The initial stage of prenatal development characterized by rapid cell division.

Blastocyst

A hollow ball of cells formed from the zygote through exponential cell division.

Ectopic pregnancy

A condition where the fertilized egg implants outside the uterus, often in the fallopian tube.

Ruptured fallopian tubes

A serious complication of ectopic pregnancy that can lead to death.

End of zygote period

Occurs when the blastocyst implants into the uterine walls, typically around 2 weeks after conception.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins resulting from a single fertilized egg dividing into 2 separate zygotes with almost identical genetic information and always the same sex.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins resulting from the release of 2 eggs during ovulation, each fertilized by a different sperm cell, leading to 2 zygotes that may be of different sexes and have no more genetic similarity than full siblings born years apart.

Embryo Period

The stage of prenatal development that begins after the blastocyst is implanted into the uterine wall, around 2 weeks after conception, and ends at the 8th week.

Major Developmental Advances

During the embryo period, all major organs and systems of the body undergo significant development.

Cephalocaudal Development

A pattern of growth and development where significant changes occur in the brain and head before changes happen in the extremities.

Proximodistal Development

A pattern of growth and development where significant development occurs first at centrally located features such as the heart or lungs.

Final period of prenatal development

The stage occurring from the 9th week of gestation to birth, characterized by refinements, significant growth, and brain development advances.

Fetal weight gain and positioning

During this period, the fetus gains weight, moves into the head-down position, and develops the sulci and gyri in the brain.

Learning in utero

Fetuses learn from the external environment, can differentiate between familiar and novel stimuli, and recognize the mother's voice.

Maternal-fetal interaction

Pregnant women can observe fetal behaviors, which may predict certain temperament traits in infants after birth.

Teratogen

Environmental agents that contribute negatively to prenatal development.

FASD

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder - a range of conditions associated with being exposed to alcohol prenatally, including Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A condition in infants resulting from exposure to alcohol during pregnancy, characterized by various physical and cognitive impairments.

Kelly et al

Research examining the effects of maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy on children's social-emotional and cognitive functioning.

Effects of Alcohol on Developing Infants

Includes damage to internal organs, altered physical characteristics, and cognitive impairments such as reduced intelligence and challenges in school.

Prudent Recommendation

Complete avoidance of alcohol during pregnancy is advised to prevent negative effects on the developing fetus.

Discriminating Features in FASD

Physical characteristics in infants with FASD may include small, widely spaced eyes, missing ridges under the nose/lip, and a thin upper lip.

Assimilation

Integrating new information into existing cognitive structures based on similarities.

Accommodation

Creating new cognitive structures to account for information that does not fit existing schemas.

Equilibration

Achieving agreement between observed reality and mental representations to maintain cognitive balance.

Disequilibrium

State where external reality contradicts existing cognitive structures, necessitating modification through assimilation or accommodation.

Sensorimotor Period

The first stage of cognitive development according to Piaget, occurring from birth to 2 years old, where infants learn about the world through their motor abilities.

Preoperational Period

The second stage of cognitive development according to Piaget, occurring from 2 to 7 years old, characterized by symbolic thinking, language development, and challenges with animism and egocentrism.

Concrete Operational Period

The third stage of cognitive development according to Piaget, occurring from 7 to 11 years old, where children can think logically about concrete events but have difficulty with abstract or hypothetical situations.

Formal Operational Period

The fourth stage of cognitive development according to Piaget, occurring from 11 years old onwards, where individuals can think logically about abstract concepts and hypothetical situations.

Concrete Operational Stage

A stage of cognitive development occurring between the ages of 7 to 11 years, where children can reason well about concrete events but struggle with abstract thinking.

Conservation Tasks

Tasks where children learn transformative principles like identity, compensation, and inversion to understand that changes in appearance do not alter fundamental properties of objects.

Identity Principle

Children realize that transformations like reshaping clay do not change the quantity or substance of the material involved.

Compensation Principle

Children understand that certain changes compensate for each other, like the volume of liquid in different containers.

Inversion Principle

Children grasp that processes in conservation tasks are reversible, understanding objects can return to their original state.

Cognitive Limitations

Despite success in conservation tasks, children in the concrete operational stage struggle with abstract concepts and hypothetical situations.

Formal Operational Stage

A stage of cognitive development starting at age 12, where individuals can think and reason about hypothetical situations and abstract problems.

Imprinting

The process where young organisms form strong attachments to the first large moving object they see after hatching, as observed in Lorenz's study with goslings.

Attachment Hypothesis

The theory suggesting that early attachments are rooted in biological needs for sustenance and protection, explored by social scientists.

Harlow's Experiments

Research by Harry Harlow with non-human primates to investigate the nature of attachment, emphasizing the importance of comfort and security over food provision.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

John Bowlby's theory highlighting the significance of attachment bonds for infant survival, emphasizing the role of primary caregivers in providing care and protection.

Strange Situation Paradigm

Developed by Mary Ainsworth to study attachment relationships, allowing for the classification of attachment styles like secure, insecure-resistant, insecure-avoidant, and disorganized attachment.

Securely attached

Infants comfortable playing in a novel room and interacting with a stranger as long as the mother is present; become distressed when the mother leaves but happy when she returns, seeking comfort from her.

Insecure-resistant

Infants clingy and resist separation from caregivers, fearful of strangers when alone, engage in contact-maintaining behaviors with the mother upon her return.

Insecure-avoidant

Infants show minimal stranger anxiety, little distress when mother is absent, avoid seeking comfort from the mother upon her return, making limited attempts to interact.

Disorganized attachment

Characterized by extreme fear and dissociation; infants may demonstrate odd behaviors like wanting to approach and move away from their mothers simultaneously.

James Marcia (1980)

Proposed four different identity statuses based on exploration and commitment.

Foreclosed identity

Prematurely decided identity, conforming to others' expectations.

Identity diffusion

No decisions or commitments made about identity.

Psychosocial moratorium

Exploring options, such as enrolling in college.

Identity achievement

Completed identity crisis, committed to self-identity.

Emerging adulthood

Developmental phase in late teens to mid-20s characterized by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and possibilities exploration for one's life.

Changing societal expectations

Contrasts the linear path to adulthood in previous generations with the current era where emerging adults have more chances for self-discovery before embracing traditional adult roles.

Lifespan perspective

Erik Erikson's theory offers a unique perspective that spans from birth to late adulthood, tracking personality development across the entire lifespan.

Eight stages of development

Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each associated with specific challenges individuals must navigate from infancy to late adulthood.

Resolution of developmental crises

Successfully resolving challenges at each stage leads to a healthy personality and progression to the next stage, while failure may result in difficulties in that domain throughout life.

Developmental continuity and change

Individuals show a mix of stability and change in their development over time, with some aspects remaining consistent while experiences can lead to significant shifts in behavior and perspectives.

Longitudinal research designs

Tracking the same individuals over time, this method offers insights into developmental processes, revealing patterns of stability and change and exploring how early experiences impact later development.

Cross-sectional research

Comparing different age groups at the same time, this approach helps study age-related changes but doesn't capture development within individuals over time.

Challenges in studying infants

Researching infants is challenging due to their limited motor skills, communication, and attention spans, leading psychologists to focus on reflexive behaviors and gradually expand methods as children grow.

Methodological diversity

Developmental psychologists use various methods like observation, parent-report, and self-report measures to study behavior across age groups, providing a comprehensive understanding of children's actions in different contexts.