from the study guide

4.2 Prenatal Development

• in the prenatal development , there’s a set of rules that have be followed in order for the process to work

  • the right materials must be available , and the materials must be assembled in the right order

  • if materials are missing in the process of human development ( errors in cell division - it can result in infants having online 1 of the sex chromosomes - down syndrome)

  • postnatal development can be impacted if infants are born premature or preterm - when the timeline of development takes another timeline that the original timeline

4.2.1 the 3 majors stages of prenatal development

• pregnancy begins with an egg and a sperm - during ovulation, the sperm meets the egg ( which is released by one of the women’s ovaries) the egg travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus.

• fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes and then travels to the uterine lines for implantation

• if fertilization doesn’t occur then the egg is expelled along with the uterine lining ( menstrual cycle)

process:

1. starts in the ovary - where the eggs are

2. when ovulation occurs the egg travels down the fallopian tubes to the uterus

3. during traveling or while the egg is in the fallopian - if possible, fertilization happens ( when sperm meets the egg)

4. the fertilized egg is now called zygote

5. while traveling, the zygote developments into a blastocyst

6. then implantation occurs - where the blastocyst plants itself into the uterine lining

4.2.1.1 : The period of the zygote

• period of zygote

  • primary characteristic : rapid cell division

    • cells divide exponentially - 2 ->4->16->256..etc

    • as the cells divide, the middle or center of the cell hollows out —> becoming the blastocyst.

• blastocyst

  • hollow ball of cells

  • implants into the uterine walls of the uterus

• ectopic pregnancy

  • normally fertilized eggs travel into the uterus and embed themselves but, in a ectopic pregnancy, the fertilized eggs implants into the fallopian tube.

  • during these type of pregnancy, both women carrying and developing zygote are at risk - could result to ruptured fallopian tubes and or death

    • the uterus is a muscle that can expand as the zygote grows but the fallopian tubes cannot do that, which can lead to the fallopian tubes to rupture and also cause death.

• the period of the zygote ends when the blastocyst implants into the uterine walls of the uterus - 2 weeks after conception

twinning

• during cell division, 1 or more developing organisms can occur :

• monozygotic (identical twins)

  • the fertilized egg divdes into 2 separate eggs = 2 zygotes that have genetic information, almost identical ( always the same sex)

• dizygotic ( fraternal twins)

  • 2 eggs are released during ovulation, and fertilized with by different sperm cells = 2 zygotes that may be different sex, no shared genetic similarity to one another than do full siblings born years apart

4.2.1.2 : The period of the Embryo

• starts after the blastocyst is implanted into the uterine wall, around 2 weeks after conception or gestation and ending at the 8th week. by the end of this stage, all major bodily structures are formed but obvi not ready for the outside world.

• primary characteristic: major developmental advances: during this period of gestation, all of the major organs and systems of the body undergo a lot of development.

• cephalocaudal development

  • significant change occurs in the brain and the head before changes happen in the extremities - embryo at 9 weeks, the head is much larger and more developed than the feet and toes ( arent even visible)

• proximodistal development

  • significant development occurs first at centerally located features such as heart or lungs,

4.2.1.3 : The period of the Fetus

• final period of the prenatal development- occurring from the 9th week of gestation to birth.

• characterized by : refinements and finishing touch as well as significant growth.

• fetus now can gain weight, and move into the head-down position

• there’s alot alot of brain development advances that occur

  • fetal brains develop the sulci and gyri ( bumps and grooves) during the last few weeks of gestation ( 38 week)

• fetuses learn from the world outside the uterine environment

  • infants that are read particular books too, can differentiate between the familiar book and novel books that were never heard prenatally.

  • fetuses also discriminate between the voice of the mother and another women, which is another indicator of learning in utero.

  • pregnant women also come to understand how their fetuses behave and these behaviors during pregnancy can be associated with behaviors exhibited by infants after birth.

    • example: some fetuses are more “active” in utero- this early activity level predicts some behaviors profiles ( temperament) after birth.

4.2.2.1. Alcohol

• alcohol is widely known as a teratogen , this is why recommendation provided by the centers for disease control and prevention indicate that individuals should abstain from alcohol

  • teratogen - environmental agents that contribute negatively to prenatal development

• FASD - Fetel Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

  • infants that are exposed to alcohol during pregnancy, and it represents a range of conditions associated with being exposed to alcohol prenatally and FAS- fetal alcohol syndrome

  • 10% of women across the gold use alcohol during their pregnancies- in every 67 infants, 1 is expected to have FAS ( 119,00 newbroens with FAS each year)

  • Study: Kelly et al. (2012)

  • Findings:

    • Children of mothers identified as light or occasional drinkers during pregnancy showed no significant differences in social-emotional or cognitive functioning at five years compared to children of abstaining mothers.

  • Note:

    • Absence of significant differences does not conclusively establish safety.

    • Lack of definitive link between dose/timing of alcohol use and infant/child outcomes.

    • Prudent recommendation: Complete avoidance of alcohol during pregnancy is advised.

• effects on developing infants

  • damage to internal organs - resulting in heart or kidney problems as well as issues with vision or hearing)

  • altered physical characteristics - reduces head sizes, below - average height, and smooth patch od skin between the nose and upperlip

  • cognitive impairments - problems with hyperactivity and inattendion, reduced intelligence, and challenges in school

• some effects are or issues experienced by infants with FASD may be presented early on ( sleep effects may not be identified until later on)

• discrimating features in face

  • small, widely spaced eyes

  • missing ridges under nose/ lip

  • thin upper lip

Jean Piaget

Piaget's Contributions:

• • Developed stages of cognitive development from birth to adolescence.

  • Based on observations of his own children (Piaget, 1952; Piaget & Inhelder, 1956, 1974).

• Constructivist Perspective:

  • Children are active contributors to their learning, constructing their own knowledge.

• Dialectical Nature of Piaget's Theory:

  • Growth of cognitive structures occurs through encountering conflicting information.

• Example:

  • Javier's experience with Samantha illustrates Piaget's concept.

  • Javier's perception of Samantha shifts when he learns conflicting information about her trustworthiness.

• Conclusion:

  • Piaget's theory emphasizes the active role of individuals in shaping their cognitive development through encountering and reconciling conflicting information.

4.3.1.2 assimilation , accommodation and equilibration

• for addressing the manner in which infants and children construct their knowledges

• Piaget indicated that the modification of cognitive structures occurred through processes known as assimilation and accommodations

  • Assimilation occurs when individuals encounter information similar to what they have in their existing cognitive structures; when this information is encountered, it is added to existing cognitive structures.

    • Assimilation Example:

      • Juana encounters a collie named Rex while walking.

      • Juana already has a cognitive structure about dogs based on her experiences with her dog Charlie.

      • Recognizes that Rex is also a dog based on similarities in characteristics.

    • Conclusion:

      • Assimilation involves integrating new information into existing cognitive structures based on similarities, contributing to the development of understanding in children.

  • When accommodation occurs, a child creates a new cognitive structure to account for information that does not fit elsewhere.

    • Example:

      • Juana encounters her friend's Chinese crested dog named Spike.

      • Spike's appearance and behavior differ significantly from Juana's existing schema of dogs.

      • Juana experiences confusion as Spike doesn't fit her preconceived notions of dogs.

      • Unable to assimilate Spike into her existing cognitive structure of dogs due to conflicting and missing information.

      • Juana creates a new cognitive structure specifically for Chinese cresteds to accommodate this new information.

    • Conclusion:

      • Accommodation involves the adaptation of cognitive structures to incorporate new information that cannot be assimilated into existing schemas, contributing to cognitive development.

  
  

  • Processes of Assimilation and Accommodation:

    • Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing cognitive structures.

    • Accommodation: Creating new cognitive structures to accommodate information that doesn't fit existing schemas.

  • Equilibration:

    • Agreement between observed reality and mental representations leads to equilibration.

    • Disequilibrium occurs when external reality contradicts cognitive structures.

    • Requires modification of cognitive structures through assimilation or accommodation to restore equilibration.

  • Example of Juana:

    • Initially experiences disequilibrium with Spike, the Chinese crested dog, due to conflicting information.

    • Through more interactions with Spike, Juana adjusts her cognitive structure for dogs to include Chinese cresteds.

    • Demonstrates fluidity of assimilation and accommodation over time in response to new information.

  • Conclusion:

    • Equilibration drives cognitive development by encouraging the reconciliation of external reality with internal mental representations through assimilation and accommodation.

4.3.1.3 stages of cognitive development - not including the substages of the sensorimotor stage

• children process through 4 major stanges of cognitive development - 3 of which occur during infancy and childhood

  • the sensorimotor period

  • the preoerational period

  • the concrete period

  • the operational period

    • occurs in adolescence, but may never be achieved by some people

• piaget believed that early stages provide the foundation for later ones, children must progress through each stage in order

  • there’s no skipping stages

  • At each stage of cognitive development, children are believed to think about problems in qualitatively different ways than they do at earlier or later stages

  • children were thought to reason about the same problem in entirely different ways as they aged, Piaget’s theoretical perspective describes discontinuous changes in development.

  • he preoperational thinker solves problems differently than a concrete operational thinker, who also solves problems in different ways than a formal operational thinker. Information about the ages associated with each stage, as well as key information about cognitive competencies and limitations during each developmental period

• stage1: sensorimotor stage

  • age: 0 to 2 years

  • significant characteristics : Learns about the world largely through motor abilities

    • during this stage infants initially learn about the world through their actions on it, it includes 6 substages, each of which are characterized by the evolving ways in which infants learn about their environment.

• stage 2: preoperational stage

  • age: 2 to 7 years

  • significant characteristics :Can mentally represent the past, but experiences issues with animism and egocentrism; routinely fails at conservation tasks

    • divided into 2 substages : preconceptual thinking ( occurs ages 2 to 4) and intuitive thinking ( occurs ages 4 to 7)

    • advances in cognitive development are apparent, although weakness still remain

    • Children make significant strides in symbolic thinking - they become more adept at using language to convey their thoughts and feelings, and they readily engage in pretend play

    • they also experience challenges associated with animism and egocentrism

      • animism - the belief that objects like toys have feelings

      • egocentrism - difficulty adopting the perspective of other

  • experiment that was conducted:

    • Piaget's study on egocentrism: Piaget used the three mountains problem to investigate egocentrism in children. This involved asking a child to identify what they could see on their side of a papier-mâché mountain, then switching positions with the researcher and asking what the child thought the researcher could see. Children in the preoperational period typically struggle to understand what others see, exhibiting egocentric behavior.

    • Egocentrism in everyday behaviors: Egocentric tendencies are not limited to experimental settings; they manifest in everyday behaviors. For instance, young children might select gifts based on their own preferences rather than considering what their friends would like. This illustrates a lack of perspective-taking, characteristic of egocentrism.

    • Persistence of egocentrism: While egocentrism is most pronounced in early childhood, traces of it can persist into adulthood. Even as adults, individuals may exhibit egocentric tendencies, such as selecting gifts based on their own preferences rather than the recipient's. This highlights the ongoing relevance of understanding and addressing egocentrism across the lifespan.

  • from video

    • Conservation tasks in the preoperational stage: Children in the preoperational stage of cognitive development struggle with conservation tasks. These tasks assess whether children understand that certain physical attributes of objects remain constant despite changes in appearance.

    • Lack of conservation understanding: During this stage, children often fail to realize that properties like quantity, volume, or mass remain the same even if the object's appearance changes. For instance, they might not comprehend that spreading out clay into a longer shape doesn't change the amount of clay present.

    • Types of conservation tasks: Conservation tasks can vary and may involve different physical attributes such as liquid (volume), mass, number, or length. These tasks challenge children to grasp concepts of conservation across various domains, highlighting the breadth of cognitive development during this stage.

  • the explanation of the video

    • “ What is noteworthy about this video is that although the child understands some concepts, such that one is less than two, he does not yet understand that the size of each object also matters. Similarly, when asked how many quarters there are in each row, he cannot overlook the length of the row before giving his final answer.”

• stage 3: concrete operational stage

  • age: 7 to 11 years

  • significant characteristics: Reasons well about concrete events and routinely passes conservation tasks; still experiences difficulty thinking and reasoning abstractly

    • children are limited to the here and now in their thinking. They can evaluate and make sense of what they can physically see in the world around them, but thinking about hypothetical situations is difficult.

    • Transformative principles in conservation tasks: Children achieve success on conservation tasks by understanding three transformative principles: identity, compensation, and inversion. These principles help children grasp that changes in appearance don't necessarily alter the fundamental properties of objects.

    • Identity principle: Children realize that transformations, such as reshaping clay or pouring liquid into different containers, don't change the quantity or substance of the material involved. For example, they understand that rolling clay into a snake doesn't increase or decrease the amount of clay present.

    • Compensation principle: Children recognize that certain changes compensate for each other. For instance, they understand that while liquid may appear taller in a taller, narrower glass compared to a shorter, wider one, the volume remains the same. They comprehend that the changes in appearance balance each other out.

    • Inversion principle: Children understand that the processes imposed in conservation tasks are reversible. They recognize that objects can be returned to their original state. For example, in conservation of number tasks, they understand that objects spread out can be brought back together.

    • Cognitive limitations: Despite success in conservation tasks, children still struggle with abstract concepts and hypothetical situations. Their reasoning is more adept at concrete, present experiences rather than abstract or hypothetical scenarios, indicating ongoing cognitive development.

• stage 4: formal operational stage

  • age: 12 years and up

  • significant characteristics: Able to think and reason about hypothetical situations and/or abstract problems

4.3.2.1 attachment styles : john bowlby and mary ainsworth

• another key element of our social identities involves the way we function within our significant interpersonal relationships, or our attachment style

  • attachment: to the manner in which we interact with our primary caregivers as infants and with our romantic partners as adults. 

• The development of early attachments has a biological underpinning and relevance to the early survival of the mammalian species

• conducted by ethologist, Konrad Lorenz.

  • In his famous study (Lorenz, 1937), Lorenz found that goslings followed the first large moving object they saw after hatching, and showed a preference for this object—even over their own biological mother.

    • process is called: imprinting - suggests that young organisms may be biologically predisposed to form relationships with the adults of their species.

• Attachment hypothesis:

  • Social scientists explored the hypothesis that early attachment is rooted in biological needs and survival instincts.

    • This theory suggests that infants form attachments to caregivers primarily for sustenance and protection.

• Harlow's experiments:

  • Harry Harlow conducted experiments with non-human primates to investigate the nature of attachment.

    • His research aimed to determine whether attachment was primarily driven by the provision of food (sustenance) or by other factors such as comfort and security.

• Importance of comfort:

  • Harlow's experiments, notably his work in 1958, demonstrated that attachment in primates was not solely based on the provision of food.

    • Instead, primates showed a strong preference for a surrogate "mother" that provided comfort and warmth, even when another surrogate provided food. This emphasized the significance of emotional support and a secure base in attachment relationships.

• Experiment

  • Cloth mother preference

    • Harlow's research revealed that infant monkeys consistently preferred the cloth mother over the wire mother, spending most of their time on the cloth mother's comforting surface. The wire mother, which provided food, was visited only temporarily when the infant required nourishment.

  • Comfort and security:

    • When faced with stress or fear, the infant monkeys sought refuge and comfort from the cloth mother.

    • They displayed behaviors indicating a strong attachment to the cloth mother, such as running to her for protection and attempting to confront threatening stimuli in her presence.

  • Internal drive for comfort:

    • Harlow proposed that infant monkeys are innately driven to seek comfort and security from a soft, nurturing figure, akin to the primal need for nourishment.

    • This internal drive for closeness and attachment to a caregiver is as powerful as other biological drives such as hunger, highlighting the importance of emotional support in early development.

• John Bowlby

  •  one of the first psychologists to theorize about attachment relationships in infancy.

  • Bowlby's attachment theory:

    • John Bowlby proposed one of the earliest theories on attachment relationships in infancy, drawing from his observations of mammals.

    • He believed that attachment bonds were vital for survival, as they provided infants with protection and nourishment.

    • Bowlby argued that without these bonds, infants would be at risk of perishing.

  • Importance of primary caregivers:

    • Bowlby's theory emphasized the significance of infants forming attachments to their primary caregivers, typically their parents or other consistent caregivers.

    • These attachments were viewed as essential for providing the necessary care and protection crucial for infant survival.

  • Strange Situation paradigm:

    • Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation paradigm as a method for systematically studying attachment relationships between infants and their primary caregivers.

    • This experimental procedure allowed researchers to observe and classify different attachment styles, providing insights into the factors influencing the development of attachment bonds in early infancy.

attachment styles:

• securely attached

  • These infants were comfortable playing in the novel room and interacting with the stranger as long as the mother was present.

  • These infants became distressed when the mother left the room but seemed happy when she came back—infants crawled or walked to the mother for comfort and stopped crying after they were picked up.

• insecure- resistant

  • Infants with this attachment classification were clingy and resisted separation from their caregivers - by holding onto their mother’s skirt as she tried to exit the room.

  • These infants were fearful of the stranger when left alone with her and in some cases engaged in additional contact-maintaining behaviors with the mother when she reappeared.

• insecure - avoidant

  • attachment classifications experienced minimal stranger anxiety when left alone with the stranger and showed little distress when their mother was absent.

  • When their mothers returned, infants did not approach her for comfort or seem excited by her appearance—they actively avoided her, perhaps looking over to her but making limited attempts to interact with her.

• disorganized attachment

  • this attachment style is characterized by extreme fear and dissociation;

  • infants with this attachment classification may demonstrate odd behaviors when interacting with their mothers, such as wanting to approach them while also seeking to move away (e.g., moving away from the mother with outstretched arms, as though wanting to be picked up).

4.4.2.1 identity formation

• James Marcia (1980)

  • proposed four different identity statuses that vary based on exploration and commitment.

    • Individuals who have a foreclosed identity have prematurely decided who they are, likely conforming to the ideas of or expectations set by others.

    • Those who have identity diffusion have not made any decisions or commitments about their identities.

    • Those in psychosocial moratorium are exploring various options, perhaps by enrolling in college,

    • whereas those who have advanced to identity achievement have completed their identity crisis and have committed to who they believe themselves to be. 

4.5.2 social development

• Social clock and cultural norms:

  • Society often dictates certain "appropriate" times for key life events such as marriage, having children, and retirement. These expectations are influenced by a social clock,

  • it represents cultural norms regarding when these milestones should occur. However, societal norms are evolving, and "non-normative" behaviors are becoming more common, challenging traditional expectations.

• Emerging adulthood:

  • As a young adult, you may be experiencing emerging adulthood, a developmental period characterized by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and exploring possibilities for one's life.

  • This phase typically spans from the late teens to the mid-20s and is marked by a period of transition and self-discovery.

• Changing societal expectations:

  • Unlike previous generations, where the path to adulthood was often more linear and condensed, emerging adults today have more opportunities for exploration and self-discovery before settling into traditional adult roles.

  • While this may lead to challenges and even "quarter-life crises," it also offers opportunities for personal growth, increased self-esteem, and well-being as individuals navigate their life paths.

4.6 development : a lifespan respective ( including table 4.5)

• Lifespan perspective:

  • While many developmental theories focus on specific stages of life, Erik Erikson's theory offers a unique lifespan perspective.

    • Erikson's theory spans from birth to late adulthood, tracking the development of personality across the entire lifespan.

• Eight stages of development:

  • Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each associated with a specific developmental challenge or crisis that individuals must navigate.

  • These stages begin in infancy and continue through late adulthood, with each stage presenting its own unique challenges and opportunities for growth.

• Resolution of developmental crises:

  • According to Erikson, successfully resolving the challenges presented at each stage leads to the development of a healthy personality and progression to the next stage. However, failure to resolve these crises may result in difficulties associated with that particular domain throughout life.

  • Erikson's theory provides insights into how individuals navigate and develop across the lifespan, highlighting the importance of understanding development from infancy to old age.

table 4.5

4.7 research method in developmental psychology

• Developmental continuity and change:

  • Individuals exhibit both stability and change in their development over time.

  • While certain aspects of personality and behavior may remain relatively consistent since high school or childhood, experiences and life events can lead to significant changes in perspectives, goals, and behavior.

• Longitudinal research designs:

  • Studying the same individuals over time through longitudinal research designs provides valuable insights into developmental processes.

  • Researchers can track patterns of stability and change across the lifespan, as well as investigate how early experiences in infancy and childhood influence later development.

• Cross-sectional research:

  • Cross-sectional research, which compares different age groups at the same point in time, is useful for examining age-related changes but does not capture development within the same individual over time.

  • Combining longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches allows developmental psychologists to address a wide range of research questions and contribute to understanding human development from infancy to adulthood.

• Challenges in studying infants:

  • Collecting data from infants presents unique challenges due to their limited motor control, communication abilities, and short attention spans.

  • Developmental psychologists focus on studying reflexive, involuntary, and obligatory behaviors in neonates and young infants, gradually expanding their methodological repertoire as children age and gain more voluntary control over their actions.

• Methodological diversity:

  • Developmental psychologists employ a variety of research methods, including observation, parent-report, and self-report measures, to study behavior across different age groups.

  • Combining multiple data sources allows researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of how children behave in various contexts and why they act as they do.