Paper 2 Key Studies

Goldthorpe - Social Stratification (marxist)

‘Affluent Workers’ (1969)

• A study in Luton of 62 affluent workers at the Vauxhall Car Plant

• ‘Embourgeoisement thesis’- The more affluent working class portrayed middle-class behaviours

• Instrumental attitudes and privatism: affluent workers saw paid work as a means to an end, focused on home and family life over community and political engagement.

CRITICISM he argued these workers viewed themselves as working class: identity is more fluid and changes over time.

Palulski and Waters - Social Stratification (postmodernist)

‘Class is dead’ They argue that class is no longer the main source of identity or inequality in postmodern societies.

• Identity is based on lifestyle - people define themselves by how they live, not their work.

• Social class has changed its power to shape lifestyle in the way it once did.

CRITICISM social mobility is still limited, and many inequalities still align with class lines.

Weber - social stratification

Social class is not only abot who owns the means of production, incl. 3 elements:

1) Class 2) Status 3) Party

• Power is defined as ‘the ability to achieve goals despite opposition from others’

• Authority is legitimate power, coercion is against one’s will

• 3 types of authority- rational legal, traditional and charismatic

The Sutton Trust - Social Stratification (marxist/social democratic)

• A small percentage of pupils from private schools dominate top professions, although only 7 percent of the population attend them.

• Social mobility in the U.K is low compared to other countries.

  CRITICISM Assumes all pupils want upward social mobility through education (e.g. Sugarman’s theory)

Sugarman - Social Stratification

Cultural Deprivation theory (1970) The working class and middle class have differing sets of values and achievement.

• Present-time orientation: working class individuals focus on the present rather than the future.

• Fatalism: working class individuals feel powerless to change their circumstances.

  CRITICISM ‘deterministic’ - overemphasis on culture

Davis and Moore - Social Stratification (functionalist)

1) Role of social stratification - social stratification exists because certain roles in society require greater skills, training and responsibility

2) Meritocracy - the most talented individuals are placed into the most socially useful roles through education.

3) Incentive of stratification - w/out stratiication and inequality, there would be no incentive to work hard.

CRITICISM the jobs which are most socially useful don’t always have high status or pay (e.g. nursing)

Savage et. Al - Social Stratification (neo-marxist)

‘Social Class in the 21st Century’ (2013)

• Class is multidimensional, which means that social class is no longer simply about wealth or occupation, but involves a combination of economic, cultural and social resourcces.

  CRITICISM focus on middle class mobility, overemphasises cultural factors.

Skeggs - Social Stratification (feminist)

‘Formations of class and gender’ (1997) Working class women feel the need to ‘earn’ respectability because of how they are viewed by middle class society: respectability is symbolic capital.

• Class isn’t just about money- class is about how people are treated, labelled and represented in society.

• Working class women are pathologised (seen as dysfunctional)

  CRITICISM too subjective, ungeneralisable

Charles Murray - Social Stratification (New Right)

• A new ‘underclass’ (poor, culturally different): associated with Hispanics and Black African-Americans.

• Cycle of dependency:

  1) Welfare benefits remove the incentive to work 2) Parents model this 3) Children grow up to rely on benefits 4) Intergenerational culture of dependency

  CRITICISM blames individuals rather than structural causes of inequality

Bourdieu - Social Stratification (Marxist)

1) Cultural capital - middle lass passes on valued knowledge, language and behaviours that matches the dominant culture.

2) Social capital

• Symbolic capital - status and respect held

• Symbolic violence occurs when the working class feels unworthy.

3) Habitus - a person’s habits, values and expectations shaped by their class background

CRITICISM theory is ‘deterministic’ - assumes the working class rarely achieves social mobility

Fiona Devine - Social Stratification (neo-marxist)

Restudy of the ‘affluent worker’ thesis (1990)

• Class identity still matters - working class individuals still had strong working class identities and values, such as community and solidarity.

• Affluence didn’t erase class - although living standards improved, it didn’t lead to privatised lifestyles.

• Criticised Goldthorpe for overstating the decline of working-class values.

Rowntree - Social Stratification (Social reformist, used by Functionalist and New Right)

Empirical studies on poverty in York (1899, 1936, 1950)

• ‘poverty line’ a specific income level beow which people could not meet basic needs.

• 30 percent of York’s population lived in poverty in 1899

• Later studies showed changes in the causes of poverty: unemployment, old age..e.t.c

Townsend - Social Stratification (social democratic/marxist)

‘Poverty in the United Kingdom’ (1979) Deprivation index that listed 12 items

• Relative deprivation - Townsend’s concept of poverty, lacking the resources most take for granted: 22 percent of the population experienced relative poverty.

• 9 percent relative standard, 6 percent state standard

CRITICISM some of the items are not limited to deprivation (e.g. ‘not having a Sunday joint’)

Parsons - Social Stratification (functionalist)

Social stratification is functional for society as it ensures stability and order.

• Role allocation: society allocated people to roles based on abilities and qualifications.

• Meritocracy people are more talented and skilled and therefore earn higher rewards, which motivates them to work harder and achieve.

CRITICISM overlooks conflict and inequality + overemphasis on consensus

Bell hooks - Social Stratification (feminist)

• intersectionality: various forms of oppression (such as sexism and racism) intersect- social stratification is based on multiple factirs

• Patriarchy and capitalism reinforces male dominance and exploits the working class, results in ethnic minority women experiencing a double jeopardy.

• Oppression social stratification oppresses marginalised groups

CRITICISMS intersectionality is difficult to apply to research due to the complex nature.

Dobash and Dobash - Social Stratification (feminism)

1) Patriarchal society- domestic violence is a manifestation of inherent power imbalance

• ‘Cultural acceptance’ of violence- domestic violence is somewhat accepted in patriarchal soiety: leads to a cycle where women feel powerless.

• A woman’s position in society is reinforced through violence and abuse.

CRITICISM focuses on western societies.

Sylvia Walby - Social Stratification (feminist)

Six patriarchal structures

1) Household 2) Paid work 3) State 4) Male violence 5) Sexuality 6) Culture

• Patriarchy has evolved over time

• Women’s labout is exploited in a capitalist society

CRITICISMS neglect of men’s experiences, men may be oppressed

Moodod et. Al - Social Stratification (interactionist)

• ethnic minority groups experience cultural differences

• Institutional racism limits opportunities and contributes to ethnic inequalities.

• Different groups face different levels and types of inequality.

CRITICISMS overemphasis on culture, neglects material deprivation

Rex and Tomlinson - Social Stratification (Marxist)

• ethnic minorities, esp. black and asian are disadvantaged by class inequality due to institutional racism- e.g pushed into the worst housing, low-paid jobs, poor education (‘racialised underclass’)

• Face a ‘dual disadvantage’ → economic and racial

CRITICISM not all ethnic minorities experience racism to the same degree: asian pupils often outperform other races and are more qualified.

Durkheim - Crime and Deviance (functionalism)

• Crime is an integral part of all healthy societies

• Crime performs positive functions in society

  → Boundary maintenance - when laws are broken and punished, society reaffirms its shared norms and values

  → Social change: some deviance can lead to important reforms. (E.g. Civil Rights)

• TOO much crime indicates a dysfunctional society.

CRITICIS ignores the harm it causes to individuals and communities

Merton - crime and deviance (functionalist)

Strain occurs when people cannot achieve society’s goals through legitimate means.

• This causes anomie (normlessness), leading to deviant behaviour.

• 5 responses to strain

  1) Conformity 2) Innovation 3) Ritualism 4) Retreatism 5) Rebellion

CRITICISM ‘deterministic’, most who experience anomie don’t turn to crime.

Cohen - crime and deviance (functionalist)

Status Frustration (1955)

• working class boys may face status frustration due to educational failure

• This leads to them joining delinquent subcultures in order to gain status

Chambliss - Crime and Deviance (marxist)

Laws are made by or for the ruling class

• Selective Law Enforcement - the law is applied unequally: working class and ethnic minorities are more likely to be policed and punished.

• Laws aim to protect private property

• ‘Saints and Roughnecks’

  → Saints committed deviance but were punished less severely than Roughnecks

CRITICISM ignores gender, ethnicity and individual choice.

Box - crime and deviance (marxist)

• crime is a social construct created by the bourgeoisie

• Ideological mystification- the ruling class controls the media + legal system, hiding the extent of corporate and white collar crime.

  → This makes working class crime seem more common and dangerous.

  → White collar crime is less likely to be prosecuted, although it causes more harm

CRITICISMS assumes all working-class people are criminalised and all upper class people are protected.

Gordon - Crime and Deviance (marxist)

• Crime is a rational response to capitalism. Its values of greed, competition and inequality encourages people to break the rules to succeed.

• Criminal justice system focuses on working-class crime: law and punishment controls the working class.

• Labelling the working class as inherently criminal is a deliberate strategy to divide the working class.

CRITICISM overemphasises class conflict.

Becker- Crime and Deviance (interactionist)

• no act is inherently deviant, only when it is labelled as such by agencies of social control

• Once labelled as deviant, individuals may internalise the label and act accordingly (self-fulfilling prophecy)

  → Can lead to a master status

• This overall will lead to a deviant career.

CRITICISM doesn’t explain why someone becomes deviant in the first place

Lehert - Crime and Deviance (interactionist)

• primary deviance - initial acts of rule breaking or norm violations: often minor and not perceived as part of an individual’s character.

• Secondary deviance - an individual is publicly labelled as deviant due to their behaviour: internalised and often leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the individual’s actions conform to societal expectations of the deviant label.

CRITICISM fails to explain the cause of primary deviance, too deterministic.

Cicourel - Crime and Deviance (interactionist)

• Typifications (stereotypes) 8 officers had a mental image of what deviants looked like (working class, ethnic minority…): these individuals were more likely to be stopped.

• Middle class advantage: less likely to be charged- parents can negotiate with authorities and it is seen as a temporary phase.

• Process is biased, deviance is socially constructed

CRITICISM overlooks the influence of the capitalist class

Heidensohn - crime and deviance (feminism)

Social Control Theory (1985) Women commit less crime because they are more strictly controlled in 3 spheres:

• 1. Private sphere - women are restricted by domestic responsibilities and patriarchal expectations. Less opportunity and time.

• 2. Public sphere - fear of reputation being damaged, which restricts public behaviour as well as male violence and harassment.

• 3. Workplace - controlled by male authority.

CRITICISM women are less controlled today due to changing gender roles.

Carlen - crime and deviance (feminist)

‘Women, crime and poverty’ (1987)

• Unstructured interviews of 39 women

• Control theory and the gender deal

  → 1) Class deal: if women work hard, they will earn a decent standard of living.

  → 2) Gender deal: if women conform to gender roles, they’ll receive emotional and material support.

• When both deals fail, criminality becomes a viable alternative.

CRITICISM small and non representative sample, focuses only on working-class

Wilson and Kelling - crime and deviance (new right)

‘Broken Windows Theory (1982)

• minor signs of disorder (graffiti, broken windows, vandalism) signal that no one cares, encouraging further deviance.

• Maintaining order can prevent larger crimes

CRITICISM doesn’t address root causes of crime like inequality or poor socialisation

Lea and Young - crime and deviance (left realism)

• relative deprivation - people feel deprived in comparison to others: leads to frustration and a sense of injustice, encourages people to commit crimes.

  → cannot achieve goals with legitimate means but still desire them.

• Crime is a result of subcultures - coping.

• Marginalied groups are more likely to be criminal

• Crime is shaped by group dynamics

CRITICISM overemphasises role of deprivation, neglecting state violence and power structures.

Young - Crime and Deviance (left realism)

• Increasing social exclusion of marginalised groups, those who can;t afford to keep up w. Consumer cuture feel excluded and turn to crimee.

• ‘Culture of consumerism’ leads to heightened material deprivation

• ‘The Exclusive Society’ - social exclusion is more pronounced in modern society and is linked to growing inequality in the U.K- social unrest.

• Media exarcebated relative deprivation

CRITICISM downplaus the role of power structures, state control and repression.

Snider - Crime and Deviance (marxist)

• corporate and white collar rimes cause more harm to society than working class ‘street crimes’

• Governents are reluctant to pass laws that regulate large businesses too strictly- reduces profitability.

• Crime of the powerful is systematically ignored

CRITICISM ‘deterministic’ - assumes all laws are made to benefit the ruling class. Ignoring examples of consumer/worker protection laws.

Tumin - Social Stratification (critique of Davis and Moore)

• not everyone has equal opportunity to succeed, esp due to inequality in access to resources

• ‘Functional importance’ is subjective - e.g teachers are more important but paid less than celebrities

• Stratification can create conflict and prevent society from using the talents of all of its members

C. Wright Mills - social stratification (marxist)

‘The power elite’ (1956)

• a small group of powerful elite control key institutions in society - hold disproportionate power

• Although society appears democratic, true power is concentrated in the hands of the elite.

• ‘The Sociological Imagination’ personal troubles (poverty) are connected to public issues (social structures)

CRITICISM overstates unity between political, economic and military elites- compete/disagree

Milliband - Social Stratification (marxist)

• The state protects the interests of the ruling capitalist class

  → key institutions like the government, civil service and legal system are dominated by the elite.

• Power lies in economic ownership

• Power is concentrated in the hands of a small capitalist elite who dominate decision making.

CRITICISM Poulantzas argues that the state has relative autonomy- designed to maintain capitalism

Statistics- social stratification social class

• The richest 10 percent of households hold 43 percent of all wealth, while the poorest 50 percent only hold 9 percent

• 1 in 8 children from low-income families become high earners as adults

Social Stratification statistics gender and ethnicity

• unemployment rate for black people is 3x higher than for white people

• As of 2023, the U.K’s gender pay gap is 14.3 percent

Crime and Deviance statistics crime rates (england and wales)

• 9.4 million crimes recorded in the year ending march 2023.

• Violent crime increased by 20 percent compared to pre-pandemic levels

• 49000 knife-related offences recorded - young people (esp. males) were disproportionally involved.

• 3.4 million fraud offences in the last year

• white collar crimes are less likely to be prosecuted

Crime and deviance statistics (gender and ethnicity)

• around 75 percent of convicted offenders are male

• Women make up just 4 percent of the prison population

• Black people are 6x more likely to be stopped and searched than white people

• Black individuals are 3x more likely to be arrested

• Ethnic minorities are likely to receive harsher sentences.

Crime and deviance statistics - youth and class

• youths aged 10-17 make up around 15 percent of arrests

• People who have been excluded from schools are 4x more likely to be involved in crime

• Around 65 percent of prisoners have literacy skills below the level expected of an 11 year old

• A majority of prisoners were unemployed or low income before being sentenced