APES Exam Review Pt. 2

(U8) Identify the main anthropogenic source of heavy metal pollution and explain how these heavy metals may impact ecosystems far away from their release

coal combustion - particulates containing mercury are released from combustion, carried by the wind and then either fall as dry particles or dissolve into rain water and fall as precip. downwind from emission source, coal ash ponds can overflow, releasing heavy metals into surface waters that can carry them downstream

(U8) Describe how an area can be distinguished as a wetland ecosystem

soil that is submerged or saturated with water for all or part of the year, emergent vegetation, plants with adaptations to survive waterlogged soil or complete submergence of roots in standing water

(U8) Identify TWO examples of ecosystem services provided by wetlands

plants or animals harvested for food sources, regulation of local temperature, absorption of flood waters, recharge groundwater, pollinator habitat, pest control, water filtration

(U8) Identify TWO human activities that disrupt wetland ecosystems

agricultural runoff carrying pesticides or fertilizers, motor oil/plastic/trash carried in urban stormwater runoff, commercial development that drains wetlands/removes them, upstream dams that limit water and nutrient flow into wetlands, diversion of water for drinking/agriculture that decreases water flow into wetlands, overfishing

(U8) Identify a non energy related purpose for damming a river and describe one ecological consequence for wetlands located downstream from a dam

flood control/recreation/water supply - deprives downstream wetlands of nutrients in sediments needed for plant growth, decreases water flow to downstream ecosystems, lowering water level and decreasing wetland habitat

(U8) Identify TWO possible sources of excess nitrogen and phosphorous that can lead to cultural eutrophication

agricultural runoff, urban runoff, improperly treated sewage, CAFO manure/livestock runoff

(U8) Explain how excess nitrogen and phosphorous in a water source lead to hypoxic waters

N/P influx leads to algae bloom. When algae die, bacteria break them down via aerobic decomposition, using up dissolved oxygen in water which leads to hypoxic or low oxygen waters

(U8) Explain how hypoxic waters can become dead zones

hypoxic waters lead to death of aquatic organisms, which leads to more aerobic decomposition, decreasing dissolved oxygen even further until levels of oxygen are too low to support most forms of aquatic life

(U8) Define oligotrophic

clear waters with stable algae populations and high dissolved oxygen levels

(U8) Describe the process of oligotrophic waters becoming eutrophic naturally over time

sediments and organic matter accumulate at the bottom of waters over time, releasing more nutrients into the water, leading to naturally eutrophic waters

(U8) Describe the relationship between water temperature and dissolved oxygen

they have an inverse relationship (as temperature increases, dissolved oxygen decreases)

(U8) Describe a specific impact that thermal pollution can have on aquatic species

increased respiration rate, suffocation due to decrease oxygen levels, thermal shock and death if temperature of water rapidly increases above zone of intolerance

(U8) Identify TWO human activities that can lead to thermal pollution

urban runoff, discharge of waste water used to cool industrial processes, discharge of waste water used in power plants

(U8) Propose a solution to the problem of thermal pollution

expanded use of cooling towers that enable cooling of water before discharge into surface waters

(U8) Define the term persistent organic pollutant

synthetic, carbon-based, fat-soluble pollutants that aren’t easily metabolised by organisms bodies

(U8) Define the term bioaccumulation

the buildup/concentration of POPs/fat soluble pollutants in the bodies of organisms over time

(U8) Explain why POPs bioaccumulate in organisms over time

because they are not water-soluble, they’re not easily filtered/removed from blood and excreted as waste/urine or broken down/metabolized. Instead they accumulate in fat-tissues of organisms

(U8) Identify one impact that that accumulation of POPs can have on an organism

central nervous system damage, reproductive system damage/disruption

(U8) Identify TWO examples of persistent organic pollutants

phthalates, BPA, dioxins, perchlorates, DDT, PCBs, mercury

(U8) Explain why DDT and PCBs still remain in many ecosystems today, despite being banned in the US in the 1970s

because they’re not easily metabolized by organisms or broken down by microbes/bacteria/biological or chemical processes they persist in soils/sediments

(U8) Describe one way that POPs may be released into ecosystems

medical waste incinerators/fertilizer factories/coal fired power plants can release particulates with POPs attached to them that are carried by wind and deposited in ecosystems as precipitation or dry particles, leachate from landfills can carry POPs into groundwater, improper disposal of plastic/rubber/cosmetic/pesticide manufacturing waste can release POPs into surface waters

(U8) Explain how biomagnification differs from bioaccumulation

bioaccumulation is the accumulation of POPs in the body of an organism over its lifetime, while bioaccumulation is the increasing concentration per unit of body tissue of POPs in organisms at higher trophic levels

(U8) Describe a specific health impact that biomagnification of POPs can cause in top predators

thinning of eggshells in large predatory birds, damage to central nervous system in large marine predators, reproductive system disruption/birth defects

(U8) Describe one way that mercury can enter aquatic ecosystems

combustion of coal releases particulates with mercury attached that can be deposited in downwind aquatic ecosystems by particulates or precipitation, coal ash ponds can overflow which releases mercury into nearby surface water

(U8) Propose a solution to limit human exposure to methylmercury

limit consumption of large, predatory seafood

(U8) Identify TWO sources that contribute to Municipal Solid Waste

school waste, business waste, home waste, yard waste

(U8) Define e-waste and explain why it should not be disposed of in landfills

old electronic devices such as phones or computers that contain hazardous chemicals like cadmium, lead, mercury, PBDEs which can be released into groundwater if leachate leaks through landfill liners

(U8) Identify TWO other examples of products that should not be disposed of in landfills

old paint, cleaners, antifreeze, motor oil, car batteries, rubber tires

(U8) Explain why rubber tires should not be disposed of in large piles

they can collect standing water that creates a breeding ground for mosquitoes that act as disease vectors

(U8) Describe ONE environmental drawback of landfills

Risk of groundwater contamination, methane/CO2 release contributing to global warming, habitat loss

(U8) Identify TWO benefits of burning waste

reduction of total waste volume, generation of electricity in waste to energy power plants

(U8) Describe an environmental consequence of disposing of waste by dumping it in the ocean

ingestion of plastic by marine organisms leading to suffocation/starvation/death, decreased light penetration and photosynthesis, entanglement of marine organisms in plastic/solid waste

(U8) Describe a benefit and a drawback of recycling

benefits: reduced demand for new raw materials which reduces mining/deforestation/harvesting of raw material, reduced need for landfills and the hab. loss/water contamination/GHG release, | disadvantages: requires time and energy to sort/ship/process recycled materials, cost of shipping/sorting/processing recycled materials

(U8) Explain why reducing or reusing waste is more sustainable than recycling

reducing/reusing waste lessens demand for new raw materials and also reduces energy/cost of sorting/shipping/processing recycled materials or energy/cost of converting them into products

(U8) Identify TWO examples of waste that can be composted and describe the process of composting

plant-based food scraps, yard waste, paper, cardboard. Composting involves bacteria/microbes breaking down/decomposing organic matter in the presence of oxygen & H2O

(U8) Identify ONE potential drawback of composting

release of foul odors, attraction of animal pests

(U8) Describe the proper disposal of e-waste

removal of valuable metals like gold, silver, platinum for reuse in new electronics with protective equipment to limit worker exposure to toxicants/toxic metals

(U8) Describe the process of primary sewage treatment and identify one component of sewage that is removed by primary treatment

physical removal of large solid waste such as plastic, toilet paper, sticks, leaves with screens/grates/filters OR removal of sediments/sand/pebbles with a grit chamber that allows them to settle at the bottom

(U8) Describe the process of secondary sewage treatment and identify one component of sewage that is removed by secondary treatment

aerobic decomposition of solid organic waste/feces by bacteria OR removal of nitrogen/phosphorous waste by bacteria

(U8) Identify a component of sewage that is NOT removed by either primary or secondary treatment

bacterial/viral pathogens, medications, persistent organic pollutants

(U8) Identify a component of sewage that is reduced by tertiary treatment

phosphorus/nitrogen waste

(U8) Identify a method for reducing bacterial or viral pathogens in treated sewage before it is released

chlorination, UV light, ozone

(U8) Identify why waste water treatment plants don’t always use tertiary treatment and describe a consequence for the body of water that effluent is released into if a plant does not use tertiary sewage treatment

tertiary treatment is costly. Lack of tertiary treatment may lead to effluent with elevated nitrogen/phosphorus levels which contribute to eutrophication/algal blooms/ less DO

(U8) Define the term LD50

the concentration of a toxic substance that results in 50% mortality in a test organism

(U8) Describe the relationship between a LD50 concentration and lethality of a toxicant

the lower the LD50 concentration, the more lethal or toxic the toxicant is, since it requires a smaller concentration/doseage to kill 50% of test organisms

(U8) Define the term route of exposure, and identify a route of exposure for methylmercury

the pathway through which a human comes into contact with pollutant, consumption of large predatory marine species is a route of exposure for humans to methylmercury

(U8) Explain how the concept of synergism makes it difficult to precisely measure the impact of a given pollutant on human health outcomes

numerous pollutants/toxicants can combine to have a greater combined outcome than either one would have had in the individual on their own

(U8) Identify the main route of exposure for cholera and dysentery

drinking water contaminated with human or animal waste

(U8) Propose a solution to limit exposure to cholera and dysentery in developing nations

increased sanitation such as expanded/closed sewage systems, wastewater treatment plants, increased access to improved/filtered water access

(U8) Identify one of the main causes of mesothelioma

exposure to asbestos

(U8) Identify a human health consequence of exposure to tropospheric ozone

reduced lung function/lung damage, eye irritation, respiratory muscle damage, worsened bronchitis/asthma

(U8) Define the terms pathogen and vector and provide an example of each

pathogens are disease causing organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protists or fungi | vectors are organisms that carry and transmit pathogens to other organisms

(U8) Explain why the range of diseases like Malaria and Yellow Fever are expected to increase in the later half of the 21st century

average increase in global temperature increases the range of the mosquitoes that carry and transmit these diseases

(U8) Identify the type of pathogen and vector for Malaria

protist that travels inside mosquitoes

(U8) Describe one way that the transmission of West Nile virus differs from Malaria

viral, rather than protist pathogen, birds serve as main host/reservoir with transmission primarily from infected bird to human via mosquito (different species than Malaria)

(U8) Describe one way that the transmission of Zika virus virus differs from Malaria

viral pathogen, with sexual transmission between humans possible

(U8) Identify the two vectors involved in the transmission of Plague

fleas living on rats

(U8) Identify the type of pathogen and main route of transmission for Tuberculosis

bacterial pathogen transmitted by contact with respiratory droplets from an infected person

(U8) Identify the type of pathogen, route of transmission, and one human health impact of SARS and MERS

viral pathogen in the Coronavirus family, transmitted by contact with respiratory droplets from infected individuals, causes respiratory damage/failure, cough, fever

(U9) Identify a specific human health consequence of exposure to UV-B and UV-C radiation and Describe how stratospheric ozone protects humans from these forms of radiation

DNA mutation, skin cancer, cataracts | stratospheric ozone absorbs energy from UV-B and UV-C radiation, breaking down into O2 and a free oxygen atom

(U9) Describe the purpose of the Montreal Protocol

to transition from CFC use to HCFC use in order to preserve the stratospheric ozone layer

(U9) Identify the two environmental benefits of transitioning from CFCs to HFOs

less depletion of stratospheric ozone and less contribution to global warming

(U9) Describe how greenhouse gasses warm earth’s atmosphere

infrared radiation (heat) released by/emitted from earth’s surface is absorbed by greenhouse gasses and then emitted/reradiated back down toward earth’s surface, warming the atmosphere

(U9) Explain why water is considered a greenhouse gas, but not considered a major contributor to climate change

water vapor absorbs infrared radiation and reradiates or emits it back down toward earth’s surface, but because it has such a short residence time in the atmosphere and is constantly cycling through via the water cycle, it does not have a significant contribution to climate change

(U9) Define the term Greenhouse Warming Potential (GWP) and identify the two factors that are used to determine the GWP of a given molecule

GWP refers to the ability of a greenhouse gas to contribute to atmospheric warming over a 100 year period, relative to carbon dioxide. The two factors that it accounts for are residence time of the molecule in the atmosphere and its ability to absorb infrared radiation

(U9) Explain how the GWP of methane would be determined

The GWP of methane would be determined by measuring how much infrared radiation it can absorb, relative to CO2 and how long it remains in the atmosphere, relative to CO2

(U9) Identify and explain TWO reasons that sea levels rise as global atmospheric temperature increases

atmospheric warming transfers hear to the oceans, causing thermal expansion, or an increase in the distance of water molecules from each other, raising sea level | atmospheric warming causes glacial and polar ice to melt, contributing runoff into the oceans that increases total ocean volume and raises sea level

(U9) Describe one ecological consequence of sea level rise for coastal ecosystems

increase in salinity of estuary ecosystems (resulting in loss of species intolerant to salinity increase), flooding of estuary/coastal ecosystems and conversion to open ocean, increased depth and decreased light penetration in shallow coastal ecosystems like the coral reef

(U9) Describe one economic consequence of sea level rise for coastal communities

property damage due to increased flooding, increased insurance premiums, loss of groundwater due to salt water intrusion, cost of relocating inland, cost of building sea walls/other barriers to rising waters

(U9) Describe how global warming may result in an increase in the impacts of infectious disease

as global climate warms, the range for disease vectors such as mosquitoes is projected to increase, exposing new regions to the diseases they can transmit

(U9) Explain why Earth has experienced a fairly consistent pattern of global climate change over the past 800,000 years

consistent variation in Earth’s orbit around the sun (obliquity, eccentricity, axial precession) has exposed Earth to periods of more direct and less direct solar radiation, causing a consistent pattern of global climate change

(U9) Identify TWO pieces of evidence scientists have used to measure historic temperature and CO2concentrations of Earth’s atmosphere over the past 800,000 years and describe how one of these pieces of evidence is used to determine either historic atmospheric temperature or CO2level

fossil records of foraminifera can be used to determine atmospheric temperature as they have specific, known temperature tolerances which can indicate temperature during the period of time they became fossilized | air bubbles contained in ice cores contain the same concentration of CO2 as Earth’s atmosphere at the time the ice layers were formed | the ratio of O16 to O18 in ancient ice core samples can indicate temperature of Earth’s atmosphere when those layers of ice formed since warmer temperatures lead to more O18 isotope formation

(U9) Identify TWO reasons that Earth’s poles have warmed more than other regions on Earth and Explain one of these factors

the thermohaline circulation redistributes equatorial heat out toward the poles via surface ocean currents moving poleward from the tropics | positive feedback loop of melting polar ice, causing more dark ocean water surface to absorb more sunlight and convert it to more heat, which melts even more polar ice

(U9) Explain how melting tundra permafrost generates a positive feedback loop that contributes to global warming

as Earth’s atmosphere warms, permafrost in the tundra melts, releasing methane stored beneath it due to anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, which in turn contributes to the greenhouse effect and warms the planet more, causing more permafrost melting and more methane release

(U9) Explain how melting polar ice generates a positive feedback loop that causes more warming

melting of polar ice decreases the amount of sunlight reflected from polar regions and exposes more dark/low albedo ocean water beneath it, which absorbs more sunlight, causing more polar warming and melting of more ice

(U9) Identify TWO ecological consequences of rising sea level in coastal regions

flooding or loss of barrier islands leading to coastal erosion, increase in salinity of estuary or low-lying freshwater coastal wetlands, decreased photosynthesis in coral reef ecosystems, flooding of estuary ecosystem causing loss of habitat/breeding grounds

(U9) Explain how melting of polar ice sheets can disrupt thermohaline circulation

melting of polar ice contributes cold, freshwater to the ocean, which remains at the surface because freshwater is less dense than saltwater. This cold, freshwater mass doesn’t sink and contribute to surface-deep ocean water mixing and can prevent warmer surface water currents such as the Gulf Stream from moving poleward

(U9) Explain how atmospheric circulation in the Hadley Cell has been altered by climate change

Hadley Cell circulation has expanded further out from the equator/poleward due to the decrease in difference between tropical and polar temperature

(U9) Describe how climate change has destabilized the polar jet stream

the decrease in temperature/pressure difference between subtropical and polar regions has weakened the path of the jet stream, causing greater variability/fluctuation in it’s latitudinal position

(U9) Describe one way that ocean warming has caused migration of marine organisms

since warmer waters hold less dissolved oxygen, many species of fish have migrated deeper/poleward to colder waters with more dissolved oxygen

(U9) Describe how ocean warming has disrupted reproduction of marine organisms

some sea turtle species have lost coastal hatching grounds as ocean warming causes sea level to rise, some sea turtle species have experienced skewed sex-ratios because hatchling gender is temperature dependent in these species

(U9) Describe

the mutualistic relationship between coral and algae

coral provide organic matter/nutrients/CO2to the algae and the algae provide sugars which the coral use for energy

(U9) Explain the process of coral bleaching

as ocean temperatures rise above the range of tolerance for the algae living in the reef, they leave/are expelled from the reef, causing the reef to lose its color and placing the coral in a stressed state due to loss of the sugar (energy) algae were providing

(U9) Identify

the main cause for ocean acidification

an increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration

(U9) Explain how ocean acidification impacts shell-building or exoskeleton-building marine organisms

ocean acidification causes a decrease in the availability of free carbonate ions in ocean water, which makes it more difficult for organisms to build/maintain calcium carbonate shells/exoskeletons

(U9) Identify the relationship between oceanic CO2 concentration and ocean pH

inverse relationship - as oceanic CO2 concentration increases, ocean pH decreases

(U9) Describe how an invasive species is defined

a species that can survive outside of its native habitat and threatens/outcompetes native species

(U9) Identify TWO characteristics that make a species more likely to become invasive

Diverse habitat/food adaptability or ability to utilize wide range of food/habitat resources (generalist species), high biotic potential/rate of reproduction, quick to reach sexual maturity (r-selected species), aggressive/competitive feeder

(U9) Identify the means of introduction and explain one ecological impact of a specific invasive species

zebra mussels entered the Great Lakes in the ballast water of large ships and are transported to inland lakes and rivers by small recreational boats. They aggressively feed on algae, decreasing turbidity of water but also competing for this key food source| kudzu vine was introduced as an erosion control species, especially in the Southern US. It grows extremely rapidly and climbs over native vegetation, blocking sunlight from reaching it | Cane toads were introduced in Australia to control cane beetle populations that were damaging sugarcane crops. They rapidly reproduced and outcompeted native amphibians and small reptiles for food sources

(U9) Describe TWO methods humans can use to control the spread of invasive species

laws that prohibit the transport of firewood from regions known to be infected with wood-boring insects, thinning stands of trees/removing dead or diseased trees from forests infested with fungal or insect disease, removal/cleaning of aquatic invasive species off boats transported between inland rivers/lakes, physical removal of invasive plants and re-establishment of natives

(U9) Describe an economic consequence of invasive species

lost tourism revenue if flora/plants in an ecosystem are damaged by disease, lost fishing profits/recreational fishing revenue if native fish populations are decreased by invasive species, lost agricultural/timber products if invasive insects/pathogens damage crops/trees, cleanup cost of removing invasive species

(U9) Identify TWO characteristics that make a species more likely to become extinct

narrow food/habitat requirements (specialist species), slow rate of reproduction/few offspring at a time (K-selected species)

(U9) Describe TWO environmental or ecological factors that can make a species more likely to become extinct

introduction of an invasive species can increase competition for resources and make a species more prone to extinction, rapid ecosystem change (temp, rainfall, drought, etc.) can make a species more likely to become extinct, competition from other native species for food, water, or habitat resources may cause a species to become extinct, global climate change leading to rapid habitat loss

(U9) Describe a human action that can reduce the likelihood of a species becoming extinct

establishment of wildlife refuges/preserves to protect a species from human disruptions, captive breeding programs to re-establish wild populations, listing of species as endangered which enables: purchasing land critical to their habitat needs to prevent development/loss of habitat, monitoring and restricting their trade/hunting, more strict laws/penalties for illegal poaching of endangered species

(U9) Describe a piece of legislation that can be used to protect invasive species in the United States

Endangered Species Act protects endangered species by allowing the EPA to purchase & protect habitat/breeding grounds of endangered species, prevents trade/poaching/hunting/harvesting of endangered species, and to re-establish original population sizes of endangered species

(U9) Describe an international agreement that can be used to protect invasive species

CITES (Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species) is an international agreement by many countries to monitor and prevent the trade of endangered species

(U9) Identify the 6 major causes for declining biodiversity using the acronym HIPPCO

H - habitat loss I - invasive species P - population growth (humans) P - pollution C - climate change O - overharvesting/overhunting

(U9) Identify TWO anthropogenic causes of habitat loss

deforestation for timber/agriculture/development, urbanization, draining wetlands for development, mining, construction of dams, removing coastal wetlands for aquaculture/tourism access/development

(U9) Describe how habitat fragmentation occurs and explain one consequence it can have for a population

roads/pipelines/agriculture/urban sprawl can segment once continuous habitat stretches into smaller patches/islands. This can reduce gene flow/genetic diversity in the population by making populations smaller, can make it difficult for large territorial animals to have sufficient hunting areas or to find mates, can intensify the edge effect which increases exposure to competition with other species/contact with human disturbances

(U9) Propose a solution to reduce the effects of habitat fragmentation

habitat corridors/wildlife overpasses/tunnels that allow members of a population to move between habitat fragments