Science Exam Review Use this to pass

Particle Theory of Matter

Matter is made up of tiny particles called *atoms and molecules...*
Each substance has *unique particles...*
Particles of matter are in *constant motion...*
Particles at a *higher temperatures move faster...*
Particles are *held together* by strong, attractive, electric forces...

Characteristic of Liquids

Fluids *do not have a definite shape* but take on the shape of their container...
Fluids can flow because the *particles of liquids and gases are free to move about...*
*Liquids and gases are fluids*
Liquids have *no definite shape* but *they have a definite volume...*
Gases have *no definite shape or definite volume* and *will completely fill the container they are placed in...*
Fluids can flow *through, around, and over different objects...*

Types of Flow

Laminar flow - When a liquid or gas travels smoothly in regular paths. (When fluids move in orderly lines across smooth pathways, allows fluids to move quicker and with more energy)
Turbulent flow - When a liquid or gas travels in irregular paths. (Turbulent flow adds oxygen to the water, Different currents, pathways, and objects can cause the water to become turbulent. e.g. plaque in blood vessels causes blood to have turbulent flow)

Taming Turbulence

Streamlined objects are shaped to reduce turbulence and create more laminar flow (For example wings on a plane and concrete linings)

Flow rate

A measure of how quickly fluids move, measured in *volume per unit of time.*

Surface Tension

The *strong attraction* among particles that form the surface of a liquid.
The particles are attracted to the other particles around them because the attractions are on the side and the bottom. These attractions are stronger and harder to break

Viscosity

A measure of how quickly the particles of a fluid can slide past one another...
Also called *thickness or resistance to flow...*
*More viscous liquids have stronger forces among the molecules and are harder to pour...*
*Less viscous liquids have weaker forces among the molecules and are easier to pour...*
When you *heat a liquid up* it becomes *less viscous* because *the particles have more energy* causing them to be *able to slide past one another more easily...*
When you *cool a liquid down* it becomes *more viscous* because *the particles have less energy* causing them to *have more resistance when sliding past one another...*

Cohesion

*The force of attraction between the particles of one substance...*
*A measure of how strongly the particles of a fluid attract each other...*

Adhesion

*The force of attraction between the particles of one substance...*
*A measure of how strongly the particles of a fluid attract each other...*

Methods of Changing Viscosity/Flow Rate

*Temperature...*
*The surface* that the fluid is flowing on...
*Force* pushing on the fluid...

What is Density?

Density is *a physical property of matter...*
*(Density \= Mass/Volume)*

What Does Density Look Like At A Particle Level?

*High-density objects* have *lots of particles packed* into the space...
*Low-density objects* have *fewer particles packed* into the space...

Formula for Density

The formula for density is mass divided by volume.
(g/cm3)
The density triangle is a way to find *density* with the given *mass and volume...* *(mass ÷ volume \= density)*
A way to find *volume* with the given *mass and density...* *(mass ÷ density \= volume)*
And a way to find *mass* with a given *volume and density* *(density x volume \= mass)*

Density and Water

*Water has a density of (1 g/ml)...*
If something is *denser than water* (having more than 1 g/ml) it will *sink...*
If something is *less dense than water* (having less than 1 g/ml) then it *floats...*
If something has the *same density as water, it stays where it was placed*. (e.g. if it is *placed at the bottom of a cup of water then it stays there* if it is *placed at the top it stays there* if it is *placed in the middle it stays there* etc...

What Is Buoyancy?

Buoyancy/buoyant force, is the *force exerted on an object immersed in a fluid.* *It determines whether an object floats or sinks...*
Buoyancy is *caused by differences in pressure acting on opposite sides of an object immersed in a static fluid...*
*Archimedes' principle* states that *the magnitude (size) of the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces...*

Factors that Affect Buoyancy

The *density of the fluid...*
The *volume of the fluid displaced...*
The local *acceleration due to gravity...*

Fluids Under Pressure

Compression is *the pushing and packing of the particles close together within a given amount of space...*
For *gasses particles are much more spread out and can be compressed more...*
For *liquids the particles are closer together, so they cannot be compressed as much as gases...*

Pneumatic System

Use *pressurized gases* to do things...
Safer to use as *gases can be compressed more...*

Hydraulic Systems

Use *pressurized liquids* (most often oil) to do work...
Used to lift heavy items and provide more precise movements...

Components of Fluid Systems

The *pump forces fluids through the system...*
*Conductors (Tubes or Pipes) provide a pathway to carry the fluid...*
Valves *keep the fluid moving in the desired direction at the desired time...*
The pressure gauge *monitors pressure within the system...*

Increasing and Decreasing Pressure

Increasing pressure is when *the force applied is transferred to a smaller point...* (For Example Thumbtacks)
Decreasing pressure is when *the force applied is spread over a larger area...* (For Example Snowshoes)
The formula for pressure is *force divided by the area of the part where the pressure is applied...*

Water and Atmospheric Pressure

Water pressure is the force exerted by water...
Water exerts pressure on all things underwater, it is much heavier than air...
Atmospheric pressure is the *force exerted by the atmosphere...*
*Atmospheric pressure decreases the higher you go up because there is less air pushing on you...*

Pascal's Law

When pressure is applied to a contained fluid (liquid or gas), *the force is transferred equally throughout the fluid in all directions...*
*The compressibility of different fluids affects how much pressure is transferred...*

Applying Pressure to Gas

*Applying pressure to gas in an enclosed area decreases its volume...*
Liquid's volume is also *decreased but not nearly as much as gas...* (can be slightly compressed)

Gas Tanks

When gas is compressed there are more collisions between its particles and the sides of the container...
If it is not made of a strong material like metal then the collisions could cause the tank to burst...
Metal is strong enough to withstand collisions...
*Gas tanks can explode when heated because the more heat causes more energy and more collisions which will eventually cause the tank to explode...*

How do Thermometers work?

*As the temperature increases the particles spread out more in the mercury* (red liquid) *causing an increase in volume...*
As the *temperature decreases particles come together and volume decreases...*

What is a Valve

*A mechanism that controls the flow of a fluid in a pipe...* (For example Sink taps)

Valves in the Circulatory System

The Circulatory System is *a closed hydraulic system...*
The heart pushes blood through arteries and veins...
*Veins have valves that help the blood to flow one way and not to flow backward...*
Some people have valves that do not work properly and the blood flows backwards. These are called *varicose veins...*

Internal Combustion Engine

A device that provides power by burning fuel in its cylinders...
The engine uses valves to allow fuel to enter the chamber and for exhaust gases to leave at the right time...

Power of Fluids

Heavy machines use hydraulic rams...
Like syringes, they have a piston inside the cylinder...
A pump pushes fluid into the cylinder causing the piston to move in or out with a large amount of force...

Powerful Hydraulics

Systems that use liquid...
Fire pumps and hoses cause water to leave with great force to spray far away...

Powerful Pneumatics

Systems that use gas...
Hovercrafts draw in air and drive it out under intense pressure below the craft providing a cushion for it to drive on...

Combination Systems

*Systems that use both gas and liquids...*
Car lift uses air to push oil out of a cylinder to drive a piston forward to lift a car...

Properties of Water

1. Polar Molecule Water molecules have a slight positive charge on the hydrogen side and a slight negative charge on the oxygen side...

2. Cohesive Water molecules are attracted to each other. This explains the spherical drop shape

3. Surface Tension The top layer of water molecules is extra cohesive and creates a skin-like surface...

4. Adhesive Water can also stick to other molecules. Water climbs against gravity to bring water to a plant due to its adhesion to the stem...

Properties of Water (extended)

5. Density Water becomes less dense when it freezes. This is the reason why ice can float on water. This supports the aquatic life during the winter...

6. Heat Capacity It takes a lot of heat to make water hot. This helps regulate the temperature ranges worldwide...

7. Naturally Occurs In All 3 States Of Matter You can find examples of water in all 3 states in nature. Gas as water vapour in the air and clouds, liquid as water in a pond, and solid as ice on the surface of a pond

8. Universal Solvent Water dissolves a lot of other substances. Its charged molecules attract other molecules and can dissolve them...

How is Water Important on Earth?

Water is necessary for life
*Water carries nutrients to, from, and within cells.*
The human body is about 70% water
*It is a necessary component of photosynthesis within plants...*
Water affects climate and keeps the Earth warm
*Water vapour in the Earth's atmosphere traps thermal energy from the sun.*
This process is called the greenhouse effect
The amount of energy that reaches the Earth affects oceans, currents, and climate...
Keeps the Earth's temperature regulated
*Water in the atmosphere holds a lot of thermal energy so it regulates the Earth's air temperature gradually as seasons change...*

Where and in What Form is Water Available on Earth

71% of the Earth is covered by water
Freshwater makes up *only a small fraction of all the water on Earth...*
Most of the freshwater is trapped in glaciers and ice caps and is not available for human use
*Freshwater makes up 2.5% of the Earth's water*
*Clouds are a collection of tiny water droplets or ice crystals...*
Gaseous water in the *atmosphere is water vapour
Ice or water in its solid state is in ice caps near the Earth's poles and glaciers...*
The water beneath the Earth's surface is called groundwater...

How is Water Recycled by Earth?

*The amount of freshwater on the Earth remains constant over time...*
The freshwater we drink today has been around for *millions of years...*
*The water cycle is the continuous water movement between land, ocean, and air by natural processes...*
The 2 main factors that drive the water cycle are *the sun's energy and gravity...*
*Energy from the sun causes water at the Earth's surface to evaporate...*
*Gravity causes the water to come back to the earth as precipitation...*
On the Earth's surface *gravity moves water from higher to lower areas...*
*The water eventually returns to the oceans and other storage areas in the hydrosphere then the cycle continues...*

What are the Properties of the Water Cycle?

Evaporation
*Liquid changes to a gas at the surface of the liquid and becomes water vapour in the atmosphere*
Water on the Earth's surface evaporates because energy from *the sun breaks the bonds between water molecules...*
Transpiration
*The evaporation of water from the leaves of plants is called transpiration...*
When plants have a good supply of water or air temperatures rise, they transpire and release even more water vapour into the atmosphere...
Condensation
Water vapour from transpiration and evaporation rises into the atmosphere.
*As water vapour rises, it cools and condenses into a liquid.*
Water vapour condenses around dust particles in the atmosphere and *forms droplets.*
*The droplets of water combine and form clouds.*

What are the Properties of the Water Cycle?

Precipitation
*Water droplets in clouds eventually fall to the ground as rain.*
If temperatures are low enough, the droplets will freeze.
*When the droplets freeze they then reach the Earth's surface as snow, sleet, or hail.*
Sublimation
*When frozen water, ice, or snow changes directly into water vapour without ever melting into liquid water.* e.g. dry ice changes from a gas to a solid.
Runoff
*When precipitation reaches the Earth's surface, the water flows downhill as a result of gravity.*
Water from precipitation that flows over the Earth's surface is called runoff
Runoff enters streams or rivers and eventually *reaches lakes, seas, or oceans...*
Infiltration
*The movement of water into the ground from the surface of the Earth* is called infiltration
*This water can become groundwater*

What are Earths Water Reservoirs

Water moves constantly through the water cycle
However, *most water remains in storage areas for long periods of time.*
A storage area of the water cycle is called a reservoir
*Reservoirs can be lakes, oceans, seas, groundwater, glaciers, ice caps, clouds, and the atmosphere.*
*Some precipitation soaks into the ground through infiltration and becomes groundwater.*
Aquifers are porous rocks and soil where groundwater is stored.
Runoff can also be *stored in the form of ice and snow on the Earth's surface.*