Logical Fallacies

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

A fallacy that suggests that if one event occurs after another, the first event must be the cause of the second. This reasoning overlooks other possible causes or correlations.

It is often summarized as "after this, therefore because of this."

Example: "The Giants lost today because I forgot to wear my cap backward."

Red Herring/Smokescreen

A logical fallacy that distracts from the argument by introducing an irrelevant topic, often to divert attention from the original issue at hand.

This tactic can mislead an audience by focusing on inconsequential details instead of addressing the core argument.

Example: Can you believe that so many people are concerned with global warming? The real threat to our country is terrorism.

Sweeping Generalization

(General to Specific)

A fallacy that applies a general rule too broadly, ignoring exceptions and specific circumstances. This reasoning oversimplifies complex issues and can lead to misleading conclusions.

It occurs when a conclusion is drawn based on an assumption that the generalization applies in every situation, failing to consider unique factors involved.

Example: “The majority of people in the United States die in hospitals, so stay out of them.”

 Hasty Generalization

(specific to the general)

A fallacy that draws a general conclusion based on a small or inadequate sample size, leading to potentially incorrect assumptions. This type of reasoning fails to consider the broader context or variability of the larger population.

Example: "I know a union representative and he's a terrible person.  I wouldn't trust any of them."

Straw Man

A logical fallacy that misrepresents an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack or refute. This tactic involves exaggerating, distorting, or simplifying the opponent's position, leading to a misunderstanding of their actual argument.

It often involves creating a false version of the argument that can be easily criticized, rather than addressing the real issues that are being presented.

Example: After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenseless by cutting military spending.

Begging the Question/Circular Argument

 In this fallacy, the premise and conclusion are used to support each other in a never ending circle of x because y, and y because x.

Example: "Justice League was a horrible movie because all DCEU movies are horrible. Of course DCEU movies are horrible, look at Justice League."

Euphemisms

When propagandists use glittering generalities and name-calling symbols, they hope to arouse their audience with vivid, emotionally suggestive words. At other times, the propagandist seeks to pacify the audience by making an unpleasant reality more palatable. They do this by using bland and inoffensive words known as “euphemisms.”

Example: Since war is particularly unpleasant, military discourse is full of euphemisms. In the 1940s, America changed the name of the War Department to the Department of Defense. In the 1980s, the Reagan Administration renamed the MX Missile “The Peacekeeper.” During wartime, civilian casualties are referred to as “collateral damage.”

Ambiguity

A logical fallacy that arises when a word, phrase, or statement is ambiguous, allowing for multiple interpretations. This vagueness can lead to confusion or misrepresentation of an argument or claim. Ambiguity in arguments can result in misinterpretation, as different perspectives may derive varied meanings from the same expression.

Example: When the judge asked the defendant why he hadn't paid his parking fines, he said that he shouldn't have to pay them because the sign said “Fine for parking here” and so he naturally presumed that it would be fine to park there.

Faulty Analogy (False Analogy)

This fallacy consists in assuming that because two things are alike in one or more respects, they are necessarily alike in some other respect.

This fallacy occurs when an argument is based on misleading, superficial, or irrelevant comparisons between two things. A faulty analogy fails to establish a relevant connection, leading to flawed reasoning.

Example: People who have to have a cup of coffee every morning before they can function have no less a problem than alcoholics who have to have their alcohol each day to sustain them.

False Dichotomy (Bifurcation)

Presuming an either-or distinction. Suggesting that there are only two alternatives, where in fact other alternatives exist or can exist.  Instead of black or white, we can have shades of gray... or even rainbows of colors!

Example: "A patient either gets better or they don’t."

Loaded Question

 You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldn't be answered without appearing guilty.

Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.

Example: Why are you so angry? 

Middle Ground

You claimed that a compromise, or middle point, between two extremes must be the truth.

Much of the time the truth does indeed lie between two extreme points, but this can bias our thinking: sometimes a thing is simply untrue and a compromise of it is also untrue. Half way between truth and a lie, is still a lie.

Example: Holly said that vaccinations caused autism in children, but her scientifically well-read friend Caleb said that this claim had been debunked and proven false. Their friend Alice offered a compromise that vaccinations must cause some autism, just not all autism.

The Fallacy Fallacy

You presumed that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong.

It is entirely possible to make a claim that is false yet argue with logical coherency for that claim, just as is possible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments.

Example: Recognizing that Amanda had committed a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we should therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.

The Texas Sharpshooter

You cherry-picked a data cluster to suit your argument, or you found a pattern to fit a presumption.

This 'false cause' fallacy is coined after a marksman shooting randomly at barns and then painting bullseye targets around the spot where the most bullet holes appear, making it appear as if he's a really good shot. Clusters naturally appear by chance, but don't necessarily indicate that there is a causal relationship.

Example: The makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks point to research showing that of the five countries where Sugarette drinks sell the most units, three of them are in the top ten healthiest countries on Earth, therefore Sugarette drinks are healthy.

Genetic

You judged something as either good or bad on the basis of where it comes from, or from whom it came.

This fallacy avoids the argument by shifting focus onto something or someone's origins. It's similar to an ad hominem fallacy in that it leverages existing negative perceptions to make someone's argument look bad, without actually presenting a case for why the argument itself lacks merit.

Example: The Nazis were the first to research passive smoking and prohibit smoking in public. Therefore, a smoking ban is unacceptable.

Confirmation Basis

The logical fallacy where one only looks for evidence that confirms the beliefs that they want to hold. It usually goes hand in hand with evidence denial, where one does the opposite with evidence contrary to one’s desired beliefs and ignores it.

Example: Sally is in support of gun control. She seeks out news stories and opinion pieces that reaffirm the need for limitations on gun ownership. When she hears stories about shootings in the media, she interprets them in a way that supports her existing beliefs.

Ad Hominem

You attacked your opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.

Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument. The result of an ad hominem attack can be to undermine someone's case without actually having to engage with it.

Example: After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn't married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.

Poisoning the Well

Undermining an opponent’s credibility before he or she gets a chance to speak.

Example: “The prosecution is going to bring up a series of so-called experts who are getting a lot of money to testify here today.”

False Authority

Relying on claims of expertise when the claimed expert (a) lacks adequate background/credentials in the relevant field, (b) departs in major ways from the consensus in the field, or (c) is biased, e.g., has a financial stake in the outcome.

Example: A popular sports star may know a lot about football, but very little about shaving cream. His expertise on the playing field does not qualify him to intelligently discuss the benefits of aloe.

Appeal to Authority

 You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.

Example: Not able to defend his position that evolution 'isn't true' Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn't a primate).

Glittering Generalities

Just as name-calling words can be used to make a good idea seem bad, glittering generalities are used to make a bad idea seem good. Patriotism. Justice. Truth. Hero. Science. Freedom. These are all glittering generalities. These words sound great, but they mean different things to different people.

Example: Consider the word democracy. This is a good word; an important word. But what does it mean? When somebody uses this word in conversation, we fall back on our personal understanding of the term, relying on ideas we learned from our parents, our teachers, our neighbors and our friends. We assume that the other person interprets the term in the same way that we do.

Appeal to Nature

Arguing that because human beings are products of the natural world, we must mimic behavior seen in the natural world, and that to do otherwise is 'unnatural'.  A common fallacy in political arguments.

Example: The natural world is characterized by competition; animals struggle against each other for ownership of limited natural  resources. Capitalism, the competitive struggle for ownership of capital, is simply an inevitable part of human nature. It's how the natural world works.

No True Scotsman

You made what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of your argument.

In this form of faulty reasoning one's belief is rendered unfalsifiable because no matter how compelling the evidence is, one simply shifts the goalposts so that it wouldn't apply to a supposedly 'true' example. This kind of post-rationalization is a way of avoiding valid criticisms of one's argument.

Example: "No true college student would ever consider dropping out. Anyone who does wasn’t really serious about higher education in the first place."

Anecdotal

 You used a personal experience or an isolated example instead of a sound argument or compelling evidence.

It's often much easier for people to believe someone's testimony as opposed to understanding complex data and variation across a continuum. Quantitative scientific measures are almost always more accurate than personal perceptions and experiences, but our inclination is to believe that which is tangible to us, and/or the word of someone we trust over a more 'abstract' statistical reality.

Example: Jason said that that was all cool and everything, but his grandfather smoked, like, 30 cigarettes a day and lived until 97—so don't believe everything you read about meta analyses of methodologically sound studies showing proven causal relationships.

Tu Quoque

Also Referred to As: The "you too" fallacy, The "two wrongs" fallacy, The "look who's talking" fallacy. You avoided having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser—you answered criticism with criticism.

Literally translating as “you too” this fallacy is also known as the appeal to hypocrisy. It is commonly employed as an effective red herring because it takes the heat off someone having to defend their argument, and instead shifts the focus back on to the person making the criticism.

Example: My mother told me that I should quit smoking because it is bad for my health.

My mother is a lifelong smoker. Therefore, my mother’s advice should be ignored, and her claim that smoking is bad for my health is false.

Plain Folk

Presenting yourself as (or associating your position with) ordinary people with whom you hope your audience will identify; arguers imply that they or their supporters are trustworthy because they are ‘common people’ rather than members of the elite.

Example: “Who would you vote for—someone raised in a working-class neighborhood who has the support of Joe the Plumber or some elitist whose daddy sent him to a fancy school?”

Guilt by Association

linking the person making an argument to an unpopular person or group.

Example: “My opponent is a card-carrying member of the ACLU.” 

Example: Not standing up to speak out against an unpopular political idea with all detractors and thus being considered a part of that political group even though you aren't really a part of it.

Appeal to Emotion

You attempt to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.

Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. It's important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no compelling rational reason exists for one's position. 

Example: Luke didn't want to eat his sheep's brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who weren't fortunate enough to have any food at all. 

Bandwagon

You appeal to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.

The flaw in this argument is that the popularity of an idea has absolutely no bearing on its validity. If it did, then the Earth would have made itself flat for most of history to accommodate this popular belief.

Example: Seamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they're only a silly old superstition. Sean, however, had imbibed a few too many Guinness himself and fell off his chair.

Slippery Slope

You said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen.

The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals. Because no proof is presented to show that such extreme hypotheticals will in fact occur, this fallacy has the form of an appeal to emotion fallacy by leveraging fear. In effect the argument at hand is unfairly tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture. This may be considered a fallacy of logos as well (erroneous, hyperbolic causality) as pathos but is placed in this section because it often is used to evoke the emotion of fear.

Example: “We can’t legalize marijuana; if we do, then the next thing you know people will be strung out on heroin.”

Appeal to the People

 The communicator distracts the readers or listeners with symbols that are very meaningful to them, with strong associations or connotations.

Example: "You wouldn't want your kids to be left behind on the information superhighway, would you?  What kind of parent are you anyway?"

Appeal to Tradition

This is the fallacy of asserting that something is right or good simply because it's old, or because "that's the way it's always been."  Just because people practice a tradition, says nothing about whether it is true (or good).  See, for example, astrology, slavery, superstition, human sacrifice..."Psychologists have always agreed that...."

Example: “A boy always serves as student-body president; a girl always serves as secretary. That is the way it’s always been.

Appeal to Novelty

The fallacy of asserting that something is better or more correct simply because it is new, or newer than something else.

Example: “Windows Vista is much better than older version of the Windows OS.  How could it not be, coming after so many years of experience!”