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# Glandular Tissue & Lymphatic System ## Chapter 7: Glandular Tissue ### Summary This chapter details the endocrine and exocrine glands of the head and neck, their locations, secretions, functions, innervations, lymphatic drainage, and blood supply. Understanding these glands is crucial for dental professionals to identify disease processes. ### Key Information #### Gland Types - **Exocrine Gland:** Has a duct to empty secretions directly to the site of use (e.g., salivary glands). - **Endocrine Gland:** Ductless, secretes directly into the vascular system (e.g., thyroid gland). - Motor nerves regulate secretion flow; sensory nerves are also present. #### Lacrimal Glands - **Type:** Paired almond-shaped exocrine glands. - **Secretions:** Lacrimal fluid (tears) for lubricating the conjunctiva and eyeball. - **Location:** Lacrimal fossa of the frontal bone, just inside the lateral part of the supraorbital rim. - **Ducts:** Lacrimal ducts collect tears, which then pass to the lacrimal punctum, lacrimal sac, nasolacrimal duct, and finally drain into the inferior nasal meatus. - **Innervation:** Parasympathetic fibers from the greater petrosal nerve (branch of facial nerve), synapsing at the pterygopalatine ganglion. Postganglionic fibers reach the gland via maxillary branches of the trigeminal nerve and lacrimal nerve. - **Lymphatic Drainage:** Superficial parotid lymph nodes. - **Blood Supply:** Lacrimal artery (branch of ophthalmic artery); venous return via superior ophthalmic vein. - **Pathology:** Dry eye syndrome (DES) or keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) due to reduced lacrimal fluid production. #### Salivary Glands - **Function:** Produce saliva to lubricate and cleanse the oral cavity, aid digestion, and contribute to immune defense. - **Control:** Autonomic nervous system. - **Types:** Major (large, encapsulated, named ducts) and Minor (smaller, more numerous, unencapsulated, shorter unnamed ducts). Both are exocrine. ##### Major Salivary Glands 1. **Parotid Salivary Gland** - **Type:** Largest encapsulated major salivary gland. - **Secretions:** Serous type only (25% of total salivary volume). - **Location:** Parotid space, posterior to mandibular ramus, anterior and inferior to each ear, overlying the masseter muscle. - **Duct:** Parotid duct (Stensen duct) opens into the oral cavity opposite the maxillary second molar. - **Innervation:** Efferent (parasympathetic) fibers from the otic ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve (ninth cranial nerve) via the lesser petrosal nerve. Postganglionic fibers carried by the auriculotemporal nerve (mandibular division of trigeminal nerve). Facial nerve passes through but does not innervate. - **Lymphatic Drainage:** Deep parotid lymph nodes. - **Blood Supply:** Transverse facial artery (branch of external carotid artery); venous return via retromandibular vein. - **Pathology:** Enlargement and tenderness with mumps (parotitis), most salivary gland cancers involve the parotid. 2. **Submandibular Salivary Gland** - **Type:** Second largest encapsulated major salivary gland. - **Secretions:** Mixed serous and mucous (60-65% of total salivary volume). - **Location:** Submandibular fossa in the submandibular space, inferior and posterior to the body of the mandible. - **Duct:** Submandibular duct (Wharton duct) opens at the sublingual caruncle in the floor of the mouth. - **Innervation:** Efferent (parasympathetic) fibers of the chorda tympani nerve (facial nerve) synapsing in the submandibular ganglion. Postganglionic fibers delivered by the lingual nerve (mandibular division of trigeminal nerve). - **Lymphatic Drainage:** Submandibular lymph nodes. - **Blood Supply:** Glandular branches of the facial artery; venous return mainly by the facial vein. - **Pathology:** Most common site for salivary stones (sialoliths). 3. **Sublingual Salivary Gland** - **Type:** Smallest, most diffuse, and only unencapsulated major salivary gland. - **Secretions:** Mixed, predominately mucous (10% of total salivary volume). - **Location:** Sublingual fossa in the sublingual space at the floor of the mouth, deep to the sublingual fold, anterior to the submandibular gland. - **Ducts:** Ducts of Rivinus (8-20 small ducts) open along the sublingual fold; sometimes form a larger Bartholin duct opening at the sublingual caruncle. - **Innervation:** Same as submandibular gland: efferent (parasympathetic) fibers of the chorda tympani nerve (facial nerve) and submandibular ganglion. Postganglionic fibers delivered by the lingual nerve (mandibular division of trigeminal nerve). - **Lymphatic Drainage:** Submandibular lymph nodes. - **Blood Supply:** Sublingual artery (off lingual artery); parallel venous return. ##### Minor Salivary Glands - **Type:** More numerous than major glands, unencapsulated. - **Secretions:** Mainly mucous, except von Ebner glands (serous only). - **Location:** Scattered throughout oral mucosa (buccal, labial, lingual, soft palate, posterior hard palate, floor of mouth). Von Ebner glands associated with circumvallate lingual papillae. - **Ducts:** Single, short ducts directly into the oral cavity. - **Innervation:** Preganglionic from facial nerve, postganglionic from various branches of the trigeminal nerve. - **Lymphatic Drainage & Blood Supply:** Various nodes and arteries depending on location. - **Pathology:** Mucocele (blockage of duct from trauma). #### Thyroid Gland - **Type:** Largest endocrine gland (ductless). - **Secretions:** Thyroxine (hormone) directly into the vascular system to stimulate metabolic rate. - **Location:** Anterolateral regions of the neck, inferior to the thyroid cartilage, at the junction of the larynx and trachea. - **Innervation:** Sympathetic nerves through cervical ganglia (do not control secretion; pituitary gland regulates hormone release). - **Lymphatic Drainage:** Superior deep cervical lymph nodes. - **Blood Supply:** Superior and inferior thyroid arteries (possibly thyroid ima artery); venous return via superior, middle, and inferior thyroid veins. - **Pathology:** Goiter (enlarged thyroid gland), loss of mobility indicating neoplastic growth. #### Parathyroid Glands - **Type:** Usually four small endocrine glands (ductless). - **Secretions:** Parathyroid hormone directly into the vascular system to regulate calcium and phosphorus levels. - **Location:** Adjacent to or within the thyroid gland on its posterior surface (not visible or palpable). - **Innervation:** Same as thyroid gland: sympathetic nerves through cervical ganglia. - **Lymphatic Drainage:** Superior deep cervical lymph nodes. - **Blood Supply:** Primarily inferior thyroid arteries (possibly anastomotic branch between inferior and superior thyroid arteries); venous return via superior, middle, and inferior thyroid veins. #### Thymus Gland - **Type:** Endocrine gland (ductless) and part of the immune system. - **Function:** T-cell lymphocytes mature here. Grows until puberty, then shrinks (involution). - **Location:** Thorax and anterior region of the base of the neck, inferior to the thyroid gland, superficial and lateral to the trachea, deep to the sternum. - **Innervation:** Branches of the vagus nerve (tenth cranial nerve) and cervical spinal nerves. - **Lymphatic Drainage:** Lymphatic system begins within the gland and terminates in the internal jugular vein (no afferent vessels). - **Blood Supply:** Inferior thyroid and internal thoracic arteries; venous return via veins in the posterior surface directly into brachiocephalic veins. - **Pathology:** Thymic rests (ectopic accessory thymic tissue). ## Chapter 10: Lymphatic System ### Summary This chapter covers the lymphatic system, its components (vessels, nodes, ducts, tonsils), and its role in fighting disease. It details the location, drainage patterns, and clinical significance of lymph nodes and tonsils in the head and neck. ### Key Information #### Lymphatic System Overview - **Components:** Vessels, nodes, ducts, tonsils. - **Function:** Part of the immune system, fights infection and cancer, drains tissue fluid (lymph). - **Lymphatic Vessels:** Parallel venous blood vessels, have one-way valves, drain lymph. - **Lymph Nodes:** Bean-shaped bodies in clusters, filter toxic products from lymph, contain lymphocytes (white blood cells), involved in lymphocyte production. - **Afferent vessels:** Lymph flows into the node. - **Efferent vessel:** Lymph flows out of the node at the hilus. - **Primary node (regional/master node):** First node lymph drains into from a particular region. - **Secondary node (central node):** Node that primary nodes drain into. - **Lymphatic Ducts:** Larger vessels formed by converging lymphatic vessels. - **Right lymphatic duct:** Drains right side of head and neck, right arm, and thorax into the junction of the right subclavian and right internal jugular veins. - **Thoracic duct:** Drains left side of head and neck, left arm, thorax, and entire lower half of the body into the junction of the left subclavian and left internal jugular veins. - **Tonsils:** Masses of lymphoid tissue near airway and food passages, contain lymphocytes, drain into superior deep cervical lymph nodes. #### Lymph Nodes of the Head ##### Superficial Lymph Nodes of the Head - **Occipital Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Posterior base of the head (occipital region). - **Drainage:** Scalp in the occipital region. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes. - **Posterior Auricular, Anterior Auricular, and Superficial Parotid Lymph Nodes:** - **Posterior Auricular:** Posterior to each auricle and external acoustic meatus. - **Anterior Auricular:** Immediately anterior to each tragus. - **Superficial Parotid:** Superficial to each parotid salivary gland. - **Drainage:** External ear, lacrimal gland, adjacent scalp and face. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes. - **Facial Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Along the facial vein. - **Subgroups:** Malar (infraorbital), Nasolabial (along nasolabial sulcus), Buccal (around labial commissure), Mandibular (superior to mandible, anterior to masseter). - **Drainage:** Skin and mucous membranes where located, drain superior to inferior. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes via submandibular nodes. ##### Deep Lymph Nodes of the Head - Cannot be palpated extraorally. - **Deep Parotid Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Deep within the parotid salivary gland. - **Drainage:** Middle ear, auditory tube, parotid salivary gland. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes. - **Retropharyngeal Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Near deep parotid nodes, at the level of the atlas. - **Drainage:** Posterior palate, pharynx, paranasal sinuses, nasal cavity. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes. #### Cervical Lymph Nodes - Paired, unilaterally drain tissues (except submental nodes, which drain bilaterally). - Categorized into superficial and deep. - Medical community uses a 7-level classification (Node Levels I-VII). ##### Superficial Cervical Lymph Nodes - **Submental Lymph Nodes (Node Level I, Sublevel a):** - **Location:** Inferior to the chin, within the submental fascial space and submental triangle. - **Drainage:** Lower lip, chin, floor of mouth, apex of tongue, mandibular incisors with periodontium and gingiva. - **Empties into:** Submandibular nodes or directly into deep cervical nodes. - **Clinical Significance:** Risk for spread of cancers from floor of mouth, apex of tongue, mandibular anterior alveolar process, lower lip. - **Submandibular Lymph Nodes (Node Level I, Sublevel b):** - **Location:** Inferior border of the mandibular ramus, superficial to the submandibular salivary gland. - **Drainage:** Cheeks, upper lip, body of tongue, anterior hard palate, most teeth (except mandibular incisors and maxillary third molars), sublingual and submandibular salivary glands. Secondary nodes for submental and facial regions. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes. - **Clinical Significance:** Risk for spread of cancers from oral cavity, anterior nasal cavity, midface structures, submandibular salivary gland. - **External Jugular Lymph Nodes (Superficial Cervical Nodes):** - **Location:** Along the external jugular vein, superficial to the SCM muscle. - **Drainage:** Secondary nodes for occipital, posterior auricular, anterior auricular, and superficial parotid nodes. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes. - **Anterior Jugular Lymph Nodes (Anterior Cervical Nodes):** - **Location:** Along the anterior jugular vein, anterior to larynx, trachea, superficial to SCM muscle. - **Drainage:** Infrahyoid region of the neck. - **Empties into:** Deep cervical nodes. ##### Deep Cervical Lymph Nodes - **Location:** Along the internal jugular vein, deep to the SCM muscle, from skull base to root of neck. - Divided into superior and inferior based on omohyoid muscle crossing internal jugular vein. - **Node Level II (Superior one-third):** - **Location:** From digastric muscle superiorly to hyoid bone/carotid bifurcation inferiorly. - **Drainage:** Oral cavity, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, larynx, parotid salivary gland. - **Jugulodigastric lymph node (tonsillar node):** Prominent node in this group, drains palatine tonsils. - **Node Level III (Middle one-third):** - **Location:** From hyoid bone/carotid bifurcation superiorly to cricothyroid notch/cricoid cartilage/omohyoid muscle inferiorly. - **Drainage:** Oral cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, larynx. - **Node Level IV (Inferior one-third):** - **Location:** From omohyoid muscle superiorly to clavicle inferiorly. - **Drainage:** Laryngopharynx, esophagus, larynx. - **Node Level V (Posterior cervical triangle):** - **Location:** From skull base at posterior SCM border to clavicle. - **Drainage:** Nasopharynx, oropharynx (Sublevel a), thyroid gland (Sublevel b). - **Node Level VI (Anterior compartment):** - **Location:** Inferior to hyoid bone, between medial margins of common carotid arteries. - **Drainage:** Thyroid gland, specific parts of larynx, esophagus. - **Superior Deep Cervical Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Deep to SCM muscle, superior to omohyoid muscle crossing internal jugular vein. - **Drainage:** Posterior nasal cavity, posterior hard palate, soft palate, base of tongue (bilateral drainage), maxillary third molars, TMJ, esophagus, trachea, thyroid gland. Secondary nodes for most other head and neck nodes. - **Empties into:** Inferior deep cervical nodes or directly into jugular trunk. - **Inferior Deep Cervical Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Deep to SCM muscle, inferior to omohyoid muscle crossing internal jugular vein, extending into supraclavicular fossa. - **Drainage:** Posterior scalp and neck, superficial pectoral region, part of arm. Secondary nodes for superficial head nodes and superior deep cervical nodes. - **Jugulo-omohyoid lymph node:** Drains tongue and submental triangle; enlarged node can indicate tongue carcinoma. - **Empties into:** Jugular trunk (right) or thoracic duct (left). - **Clinical Significance:** Communicates with axillary lymph nodes, high risk for spread of breast cancer. - **Accessory Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Along the eleventh cranial (accessory) nerve. - **Drainage:** Scalp and neck regions. - **Empties into:** Supraclavicular nodes. - **Supraclavicular Lymph Nodes:** - **Location:** Superiorly along the clavicle. - **Drainage:** Lateral cervical triangles. - **Empties into:** Jugular trunks or directly into right lymphatic duct/thoracic duct. - **Clinical Significance:** Final endpoint of lymphatic drainage from entire body, high risk for spread of cancers from lungs, esophagus, stomach. #### Tonsils - **Palatine Tonsils:** - **Location:** Oral cavity, between anterior and posterior faucial pillars. - **Lingual Tonsil:** - **Location:** Dorsal surface of the base of the tongue. - **Pharyngeal Tonsil (Adenoids):** - **Location:** Midline of the posterior wall/roof of the nasopharynx. - **Tubal Tonsil:** - **Location:** Nasopharynx, posterior to openings of the auditory tube. - **Drainage:** All tonsils drain into the superior deep cervical lymph nodes, particularly affecting the jugulodigastric lymph node if infected. #### Clinical Considerations with Lymphatic System Pathology - **Lymphadenopathy:** Dramatic increase in size and change in consistency of lymphoid tissue due to infection or cancer. - **Infection:** Nodes are slightly firmer, extremely mobile, and tender. - **Cancer:** Nodes can become bony hard, fixed to surrounding tissue, usually not tender initially (pain is a late finding). - **Lymphadenitis:** Inflammation of a lymph node, common with microbial infections. - **Metastasis:** Spread of cancer from a primary site to a secondary site via lymph. - Involvement of primary nodes offers a better prognosis than secondary nodes or lymphatic ducts. - Head and neck cancers frequently spread to cervical lymph nodes (80% of cases). - Node metastasis is a significant prognostic factor for squamous cell carcinoma survival. ### Learning Objectives Tasks: - Define and pronounce key and anatomic terms. - Locate and identify glands and associated structures on diagrams, skulls, and patients. - Discuss glandular pathology. - Integrate understanding into clinical dental practice. - List and discuss lymphatic system components. - Locate and identify lymph nodes and tonsils on diagrams and patients. - Identify lymphatic drainage patterns for the head and neck. - Describe and discuss pathology of lymphoid tissue. - Compare the relationship of the lymphatic system to the overall function of the immune system.

Human Anatomy and Physiology Third Edition Chapter 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (1 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties •Cellular Composition—Cells are the smallest units that carry out the functions of life •Metabolism—Living organisms carry out chemical processes collectively called metabolism –“Building” processes are known as Anabolism –“Breaking down” processes are known as Catabolism •Growth—An increase in the size and/or number of cells Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (2 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued) •Excretion—Elimination of potentially harmful waste products created by metabolic processes •Responsiveness or Irritability—Organisms sense and react to changes or stimuli in their environment •Movement—Organisms or individual cells of an organism move •Reproduction—Production of new cells during growth or repair or reproduction of new organisms Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (1 of 7) The body is constructed of a series of progressively larger “building blocks” known as the Structural Levels of Organization •Chemical Level—This is the smallest level; Chemicals range from tiny atoms to complex molecules •Cellular Level—Groups of many different types of molecules combine in specific ways to form cellular structures •Tissue Level—Two or more cell types and material outside them, called extracellular matrix, combine to perform a common function Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (2 of 7) Structural Levels of Organization (continued) •Organ Level—Two or more tissue types combine to form an organ with a recognizable shape that performs a specialized task •Organ System Level—Two or more organs that together carry out a broad function in the body –The human body has 11 organ systems •Organism Level—The organ systems function together to make up the working human body—an organism Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (3 of 7) Figure 1.5 Six structural levels of organization of the human body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (4 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (5 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (6 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (7 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 2) Study of Anatomy can be approached in several ways •Systemic Anatomy—Examines individual organ systems •Regional Anatomy—Examines the body in regions, such as the head and neck •Surface Anatomy—Examines surface markings •Gross Anatomy—Examines structures that can be seen with the unaided eye •Microscopic Anatomy—Examines cells (Cytology) and tissues (Histology) with the use of a microscope Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 2) Study of Physiology includes numerous subfields •Physiology subfields are classified by organ or organ systems, such as neurophysiology and cardiophysiology •Physiologists can also study other structural levels of organization of the body such as chemical, cellular, and tissue levels Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Word Parts •The language of science is built on Word Roots—core components of words with specific meanings •Word roots are combined with Prefixes and Suffixes to yield scientific terms •For example, combine the following: –Prefix an- (means without) –Word root encephala- (means brain) –Suffix -ic (means condition of) •“Anencephalic” is the condition of lacking a part of the brain Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (1 of 4) Anatomical Position—Common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described regardless of position –Body is standing upright –Feet are shoulder width apart –Upper limbs at the sides of trunk –Head and palms facing forward Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (2 of 4) Directional Terms—Describe the relative locations of body parts and markings to ensure accurate communication among scientists and healthcare professionals •Anterior/Posterior—Anterior refers to the front and posterior refers to the back; Can refer to body as a whole or to a body part •Superior/Inferior—Superior, or cranial, means towards the head and inferior, or caudal, means towards the tail; Used to refer to positions on head, neck, and trunk only Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (3 of 4) Directional Terms (continued) •Proximal/Distal—Proximal means closer to the point of origin and distal means further from the point of origin; Used to refer to positions on the limbs only •Medial/Lateral—Medial refers to a position closer to the middle line of the body, called the midline, and lateral refers to a position farther away from the midline •Superficial/Deep—Superficial refers to structures closer to the surface of the body and deep refers to structures farther below Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (4 of 4) Figure 1.7 Directional terms. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Medical Errors •Most medical errors occur when a patient is dispensed the wrong type or dose of medication •Occasionally, they involve surgery and are known as “wrong site” or “wrong body” procedures when the surgeon operates on the wrong part of the body or even the wrong patient •Precise communication with appropriate use of anatomical terminology is critical to prevent medical errors Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (1 of 7) Regional Terms—The body can be divided into two broad regions: Axial (head, neck, and trunk); and Appendicular (upper and lower limbs or appendages) •Each broad region can be divided into several smaller Regions •Regions may be named as nouns, such as the upper arm or brachium, or as adjective with the addition of a suffix such as -al, which is paired with the word “region” to give us the term brachial region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (2 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (3 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (4 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Trunk Pertaining To: Abdominal The abdomen Cervical The neck Gluteal The buttocks Inguinal The groin Lumbar The lower back Pelvic The pelvis Pubic The pubis Sacral The sacrum Sternal The sternum Thoracic The chest Vertebral The spinal column Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (5 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Head and Face Pertaining To: Buccal The cheek Cranial The skull Cephalic The head Frontal The forehead Mental The chin Nasal The nose Occipital The back of the head Ocular The eye Oral The mouth Otic The ear Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (6 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Upper Limb Pertaining To: Acromial The point of the shoulder Antebrachial The forearm Antecubital The anterior surface of the elbow Axillary The armpit Brachial The arm Carpal The wrist Digital The fingers (or toes) Manual The hand Metacarpal The metacarpals (bones of the hand) Palmar The palm Pollex The thumb Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (7 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Lower Limb Pertaining To: Coxal The hip Crural The anterior surface of the leg Femoral The thigh Hallux The great toe Metatarsal The metatarsals (bones of the foot) Patellar The anterior surface of the knee Pedal The foot Plantar The sole of the foot Popliteal The posterior surface of the knee Sural The posterior surface of the leg Tarsal The ankle Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (1 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Cervical region 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior side, Lateral to midline; Begins inferior to mental region; Ends superior to thoracic region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle; Superficial to underlying larynx 4.Put It All Together—Incision on anterior cervical region lateral to midline; Extended vertically 1 centimeter inferior to mental region to 2 centimeters superior to thoracic region; Deep to skin and muscle, but superficial to larynx Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (2 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Left Crural 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior and medial side; Proximal to tarsal region and distal to patellar region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone 4.Put It All Together—Wound on left anteromedial crural region, 10 centimeters proximal to tarsal region and 6 centimeters distal to patellar region; Pellet is lodged deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_video.true/bc_amerman_hap_3_concept-boost_ch1 Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (1 of 4) Planes of Section—Divide a body or body part for examination •Sagittal Plane—Divides body into right and left sections –Midsagittal Plane: Also called a Median Plane; Sections are equal –Parasagittal Plane: Sections are unequal Figure 1.9a Sagittal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (2 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Frontal Plane—Also called a Coronal Plane; Divides body into anterior and posterior sections Figure 1.9b Frontal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (3 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Transverse Plane— Also called a Horizontal Plane or Cross Section; Divides body into superior and inferior sections or proximal and distal sections •Oblique Plane—Used less frequently; Taken at an angle Figure 1.9c Transverse planes. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (4 of 4) Study Boost: How to Learn Anatomical Terms •Flashcards are popular because research shows that they work –Make customized flashcards with Practice Anatomy Lab™ Flashcards in the Study Area of Mastering® A&P –Make handwritten flashcards •Don’t forget to “Bring It Back” by quizzing yourself and “Mix It Up” by randomizing the order Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Posterior Body Cavity Cavity—Any space within the body; Protects internal organs and allows them to move Posterior Body Cavity— Located on posterior side of body •Cranial Cavity—Within the skull; Includes the brain •Spinal Cavity—Within the vertebral column; Includes the spinal cord •Both cavities are filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid, which bathes both organs Figure 1.10a Posterior body cavity, lateral view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (1 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity—Has two main divisions separated by the muscular diaphragm •Thoracic Cavity is superior to the diaphragm •Abdominopelvic Cavity is inferior to the diaphragm •Smaller cavities exist within the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities formed by sheets of tissue termed Serous Membranes Figure 1.10b Anterior body cavity, anterior view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (2 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Thoracic Cavity –Pleural Cavities—Surround left and right lungs –Mediastinum—Between pleural cavities; Houses heart, great vessels, trachea (windpipe), and esophagus; Not within serous membrane –Pericardial Cavity—Within mediastinum; Within serous membrane that surrounds heart Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (3 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Abdominopelvic Cavity—Subdivided into superior Abdominal Cavity (diaphragm to bony pelvis) and inferior Pelvic Cavity (within bony pelvis) •Contains organs from digestive, lymphatic, urinary, and reproductive systems •Peritoneal Cavity—Abdominal subcavity found within serous membranes Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (4 of 8) Abdominopelvic Cavity can be divided into segments by drawing imaginary lines through its surface •One system divides the cavity into four Quadrants –Right and left upper quadrants (R U Q and L U Q); Right and left lower quadrants (R L Q and L L Q) •A second system divides the cavity into nine Regions –Right and left hypochondriac regions, Right and left lumbar regions; Right and left iliac regions; Epigastric region; Umbilical region; Hypogastric region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (5 of 8) Figure 1.11 The four quadrants and nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Abdominal Pain •Abdominal pain is a common reason for people to seek health care, but the number of structures in the abdominopelvic cavity make diagnoses difficult •The four-quadrant system helps to narrow down potential diagnoses •For example, R L Q pain may be from the appendix, ovaries in female, the first part of the large intestine, or the last portion of the small intestine Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (6 of 8) Serous Membranes—Thin sheets of tissue that fold over to form continuous double-layered structures filled with Serous Fluid to lubricate organs in the cavity –Visceral Layer—Contacts the organ –Parietal Layer—Attaches to surrounding structures Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (7 of 8) Serous Membranes (continued) •Pleural Membranes—Surround the lungs; Includes parietal and visceral pleura •Pericardial Membranes—Surround the heart; Includes parietal and visceral pericardium •Peritoneal Membranes—Surround some abdominal organs (Intraperitoneal); Includes parietal and visceral peritoneum •Organs behind the parietal peritoneum are Retroperitoneal Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (8 of 8) Figure 1.13 The serous membranes of the anterior body cavities. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (1 of 2) •Used to look inside patients without surgery; Different forms of radiation form images of internal structures often along specific planes •X-Ray uses ionizing radiation; Chest image is shown (top) •Computed Tomography Scan (C T) uses ionizing radiation; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of abdominopelvic and peritoneal cavities is shown (bottom) Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (2 of 2) •Magnetic Resonance Imaging (M R I) involves the body being placed within a magnetic field; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of the abdominopelvic cavity is shown Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology Core Principles—Set of basic concepts of anatomy and physiology that are revisited repeatedly in the text; They are related to maintaining the body’s internal environment •Feedback Loops •Relationship of Structure and Function •Gradients •Cell-Cell Communication Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Overall Theme: Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain the Body’s Homeostasis •Homeostasis—The condition in which the body develops and maintains a relatively stable internal environment –Homeostatic Imbalances—Disturbances in homeostasis can lead to disease or death if uncorrected –Regulated Variables—Variables in the internal environment, such as temperature, blood sugar, and many others, are controlled to stay close to a particular normal value –Controlled Variables—Variables that are manipulated to maintain the regulated variables, such as the process that increases blood sugar from stored carbohydrates Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (1 of 8) Feedback Loops—A change in a regulated variable causes effects that feed back and in turn affect that same variable •Made up of a series of events that lead to an output •As the loops continue, this output then influences the events of the loops themselves •Negative Feedback Loops—Oppose the initial change and reduce the output •Positive Feedback Loops—Reinforce the initial change and increase the output Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (2 of 8) Negative Feedback Loops—Promote stability; Negating any stimulus that moves a variable away from homeostasis •Each variable has a Set Point that includes a Normal Range around that set point •The range differs for individual variables Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (3 of 8) Steps of a Negative Feedback Loop 1.Stimulus—Information that a regulated variable is outside the normal range 2.Receptor or Sensor—Cellular structure that registers the stimulus 3.Control Center—Stimulus is sent to the control center (brain or gland) by the nervous or endocrine systems 4.Effector—The cells or organ that will react 5.Responses—Effector causes the response that will return the variable to the normal range Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (4 of 8) Figure 1.14 Control of room temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (5 of 8) Figure 1.15 Control of body temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (6 of 8) Study Boost: Keeping Track of the Body’s Feedback Loops •Feedback loops occur in all body systems so there are many to remember •As you learn new feedback loops, add them to the Feedback Loops Master List page at the front of the Active-Learning Workbook •Use the list to quiz yourself “Bring It Back,” review feedback loops from other chapters “Space It Out,” and have a friend quiz you from the list in a random order “Mix It Up” Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (7 of 8) Positive Feedback Loops—Less common than negative feedback loops; Increases the response to a stimulus; Reinforces the initial stimulus •Will eventually shut off in response to an external stimulus or some outside event that is not part of the positive feedback loop •Positive feedback loops are often found within a negative feedback loop to produce a quicker response Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (8 of 8) Figure 1.16 Control of blood clotting by a positive feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (1 of 2) •Misconception 1: Negative feedback is bad for the body; Positive feedback is good –Under normal circumstances, both types of feedback loops promote homeostasis •Misconception 2: Maintaining homeostasis means the body’s internal environment is static or unchanging –Maintenance of normal ranges does not mean the internal environment is unchanging; Changes are normal and are occurring constantly Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (2 of 2) •Misconception 3: Regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops are either “on” or “off,” like a switch –The internal environment is dynamic so feedback loops always exhibit some degree of activity •Misconception 4: Any physiological variable can be controlled –Variables can only be controlled through feedback loops if receptors exist to detect changes in the set point Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 BioFlix: Homeostasis Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: BioFlix: Homeostasis https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/loMS4qosEmL53haP3z1Z_eWMupIkyIFv Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive Feedback Loops •Childbirth begins when a woman goes into labor, which occurs by a positive feedback loop •Baby’s head stretches the cervix (stimulus); Data from nerves in the cervix (receptors) are sent to the brain (control center); Uterus (effector) produces hormone oxytocin which stimulates uterine contractions (response); This continues and is amplified until the baby is born, which stops the feedback loop •Pitocin is a synthetic version of oxytocin that is used when labor needs to be artificially started, or induced Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Structure and Function are Related at All Levels of Organization Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function •The form of a structure is such that it best suits its function; Applies to all levels of organization Figure 1.17 The relationship between structure and function. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Gradients Drive Many Physiological Processes Gradients are present any time more of something exists in one area than another and the two areas are connected •Gradients drive many of our physiological processes Figure 1.18 Examples of gradients. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Cell-Cell Communication is Required to Coordinate Body Functions •Cells communicate with each other to maintain homeostasis •Electrical Signals are transmitted between neighboring cells •Chemical Messengers released from cells may work on neighboring cells or move to other cells through body fluids Figure 1.19 Communication between a nerve cell and a muscle cell.