be,/bi/,быть have,/hæv/,иметь do,/du/,делать go,/ɡoʊ/,идти; ехать get,/ɡet/,получать; становиться make,/meɪk/,делать; создавать know,/noʊ/,знать think,/θɪŋk/,думать take,/teɪk/,брать see,/si/,видеть come,/kʌm/,приходить want,/wɑnt/,хотеть say,/seɪ/,говорить tell,/tel/,рассказывать ask,/æsk/,спрашивать work,/wɝk/,работать try,/traɪ/,пытаться call,/kɔl/,звонить feel,/fil/,чувствовать become,/bɪˈkʌm/,становиться leave,/liv/,уходить put,/pʊt/,класть keep,/kip/,держать look,/lʊk/,смотреть use,/juz/,использовать find,/faɪnd/,находить give,/ɡɪv/,давать need,/nid/,нуждаться help,/help/,помогать talk,/tɔk/,разговаривать start,/stɑrt/,начинать show,/ʃoʊ/,показывать hear,/hɪr/,слышать play,/pleɪ/,играть run,/rʌn/,бегать people,/ˈpipəl/,люди friend,/frend/,друг family,/ˈfæməli/,семья home,/hoʊm/,дом school,/skul/,школа student,/ˈstudənt/,студент teacher,/ˈtitʃɚ/,учитель day,/deɪ/,день week,/wik/,неделя time,/taɪm/,время morning,/ˈmɔrnɪŋ/,утро night,/naɪt/,ночь job,/dʒɑb/,работа office,/ˈɔfəs/,офис company,/ˈkʌmpəni/,компания business,/ˈbɪznəs/,бизнес study,/ˈstʌdi/,учиться read,/rid/,читать write,/raɪt/,писать speak,/spik/,говорить listen,/ˈlɪsən/,слушать remember,/rɪˈmembɚ/,помнить forget,/fɚˈɡet/,забывать improve,/ɪmˈpruv/,улучшать body,/ˈbɑdi/,тело head,/hed/,голова hand,/hænd/,рука eye,/aɪ/,глаз face,/feɪs/,лицо health,/helθ/,здоровье strong,/strɔŋ/,сильный weak,/wik/,слабый sick,/sɪk/,больной healthy,/ˈhelθi/,здоровый sleep,/slip/,спать exercise,/ˈeksɚˌsaɪz/,упражнение eat,/it/,есть drink,/drɪŋk/,пить breakfast,/ˈbrekfəst/,завтрак lunch,/lʌntʃ/,обед dinner,/ˈdɪnɚ/,ужин kitchen,/ˈkɪtʃən/,кухня cook,/kʊk/,готовить meat,/mit/,мясо fruit,/frut/,фрукты vegetable,/ˈvedʒtəbəl/,овощ hungry,/ˈhʌŋɡri/,голодный delicious,/dɪˈlɪʃəs/,вкусный city,/ˈsɪɾi/,город street,/strit/,улица place,/pleɪs/,место building,/ˈbɪldɪŋ/,здание station,/ˈsteɪʃən/,станция bus,/bʌs/,автобус train,/treɪn/,поезд travel,/ˈtrævəl/,путешествовать road,/roʊd/,дорога map,/mæp/,карта visit,/ˈvɪzɪt/,посещать trip,/trɪp/,поездка weather,/ˈweðɚ/,погода sun,/sʌn/,солнце rain,/reɪn/,дождь snow,/snoʊ/,снег wind,/wɪnd/,ветер hot,/hɑt/,жаркий cold,/koʊld/,холодный sky,/skaɪ/,небо tree,/tri/,дерево river,/ˈrɪvɚ/,река sea,/si/,море nature,/ˈneɪtʃɚ/,природа love,/lʌv/,любить like,/laɪk/,нравиться hate,/heɪt/,ненавидеть relationship,/rɪˈleɪʃənˌʃɪp/,отношения meet,/mit/,встречать spend,/spend/,проводить; тратить together,/təˈɡeðɚ/,вместе alone,/əˈloʊn/,один smile,/smaɪl/,улыбаться laugh,/læf/,смеяться kind,/kaɪnd/,добрый house,/haʊs/,дом apartment,/əˈpɑrtmənt/,квартира door,/dɔr/,дверь window,/ˈwɪndoʊ/,окно bed,/bed/,кровать chair,/tʃer/,стул bathroom,/ˈbæθˌrum/,ванная clean,/klin/,чистый; убирать dirty,/ˈdɝti/,грязный wash,/wɑʃ/,мыть live,/lɪv/,жить clothes,/kloʊðz/,одежда shirt,/ʃɝt/,рубашка shoes,/ʃuz/,обувь jacket,/ˈdʒækət/,куртка wear,/wer/,носить dress,/dres/,платье style,/staɪl/,стиль color,/ˈkʌlɚ/,цвет black,/blæk/,чёрный white,/waɪt/,белый beautiful,/ˈbjut̬əfəl/,красивый comfortable,/ˈkʌmftɚbəl/,удобный number,/ˈnʌmbɚ/,число one,/wʌn/,один two,/tu/,два hundred,/ˈhʌndrəd/,сто thousand,/ˈθaʊzənd/,тысяча much,/mʌtʃ/,много many,/ˈmeni/,много more,/mɔr/,больше less,/les/,меньше price,/praɪs/,цена cheap,/tʃip/,дешёвый expensive,/ɪkˈspensɪv/,дор

Topic 1: Some people say that doing a team sport such as soccer or basketball is very popular because it has many benefits. What are the advantages of doing a team sport?

Topic 3: The opportunity to host an international event is keenly contested by many countries. In your opinion, what are the advantages and disadvantages of organizing an international event?

U.S. History Final Exam Study Guide 1. Columbus Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. He was searching for a westward route to Asia but instead reached the Caribbean. His voyage began long-term European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Columbus’s arrival also led to major consequences for Native Americans, including disease, conquest, forced labor, and cultural destruction. 2. Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after 1492. Europeans brought horses, cattle, wheat, and diseases like smallpox. The Americas sent corn, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and cacao to Europe. It changed diets, economies, populations, and environments around the world. 3. Jackson and the Bank Andrew Jackson opposed the Second Bank of the United States because he believed it gave too much power to wealthy elites. He thought the bank was unfair to common people and harmful to democracy. Jackson vetoed the bill to renew the bank’s charter and removed federal money from it. This became known as the “Bank War.” 4. Jamestown Jamestown was founded in 1607 in Virginia and was the first permanent English settlement in North America. The settlers struggled with disease, starvation, poor leadership, and conflict with Native Americans. The colony survived partly because of tobacco farming. Jamestown became important because it showed England could establish colonies in America. 5. John Smith / John Rolfe John Smith helped Jamestown survive by enforcing discipline with the rule, “He who does not work shall not eat.” He also built relationships with local Native Americans. John Rolfe introduced a successful type of tobacco, which became Jamestown’s main cash crop. Rolfe also married Pocahontas, helping create a short period of peace. 6. Middle Passage The Middle Passage was the forced journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. Conditions on ships were brutal, overcrowded, and deadly. Many Africans died from disease, starvation, abuse, or suicide. It was part of the triangular trade system and a major part of the growth of slavery in the Americas. 7. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion happened in Virginia in 1676. Nathaniel Bacon led poor farmers, indentured servants, and others against Governor Berkeley. They were angry about lack of protection from Native American attacks and unfair treatment by wealthy landowners. After the rebellion, plantation owners relied more on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. 8. Mayflower Compact The Mayflower Compact was signed in 1620 by the Pilgrims before they settled at Plymouth. It created a basic form of self-government. The signers agreed to make and follow laws for the good of the colony. It is important because it was an early example of democracy and majority rule in America. 9. Pilgrims & Puritans Pilgrims were Separatists who wanted to completely break away from the Church of England. They settled Plymouth in 1620. Puritans wanted to reform or “purify” the Church of England and settled mostly in Massachusetts Bay. Both groups came for religious reasons, but the Puritans created a larger and stricter society. 10. Age of Jackson Presidents The Age of Jackson refers mainly to Andrew Jackson’s presidency and the expansion of democracy for white men. Voting rights expanded as property requirements were removed for many white males. Jackson presented himself as a champion of the common man. However, this era also included Indian removal, the Bank War, and growing sectional conflict. 11. Stamp Act The Stamp Act of 1765 was a British tax on paper goods such as newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. Colonists were angry because they had no representatives in Parliament. This led to the slogan “No taxation without representation.” Colonial protests helped force Britain to repeal the law. 12. American System The American System was an economic plan supported by Henry Clay. It included protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements such as roads and canals. Its goal was to strengthen the U.S. economy and connect different regions. It showed the federal government taking a stronger role in economic growth. 13. Boston Massacre The Boston Massacre happened in 1770 when British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing five people. Colonists used the event as propaganda against Britain. Paul Revere’s engraving made the British look cruel and violent. It increased anger and tension between Britain and the colonies. 14. Boston Tea Party The Boston Tea Party happened in 1773. Colonists protested the Tea Act by dumping British tea into Boston Harbor. They were angry because Britain gave the British East India Company special advantages. Britain responded with the Intolerable Acts, which punished Massachusetts. 15. Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. It announced that the colonies were separating from Britain. Thomas Jefferson wrote most of it. The document argued that people have natural rights and that government gets power from the consent of the governed. 16. Unalienable Rights Unalienable rights are rights that cannot be taken away. In the Declaration of Independence, these include “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The idea came from Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke. These rights were used to justify independence from Britain. 17. Common Sense / Thomas Paine Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776. It argued that the colonies should become independent from Britain. Paine used simple language so ordinary people could understand. It helped convince many colonists to support independence. 18. Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation were America’s first national government. They created a weak central government because Americans feared tyranny. Congress could not tax, regulate trade well, or enforce laws effectively. Its weaknesses led to the creation of the Constitution. 19. Shays’ Rebellion Shays’ Rebellion was a farmers’ rebellion in Massachusetts in 1786–1787. Farmers were angry about debt, taxes, and losing their farms. The weak national government could not respond effectively. This showed the problems of the Articles of Confederation and encouraged leaders to write the Constitution. 20. Lexington and Concord / “Shot Heard ’Round the World” The Battles of Lexington and Concord happened in April 1775. They were the first battles of the American Revolution. British troops went to seize colonial weapons, but colonial militias resisted. The “shot heard ’round the world” refers to the first shot that began the Revolution. 21. Bunker Hill The Battle of Bunker Hill happened in 1775 near Boston. The British won, but they suffered heavy casualties. The battle proved that colonial forces could fight against the powerful British army. It gave colonists confidence early in the Revolution. 22. Saratoga / Ben Franklin The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was a major American victory. It is considered the turning point of the Revolutionary War. After Saratoga, France agreed to support the Americans. Benjamin Franklin helped negotiate the French alliance, which provided money, troops, and naval support. 23. Yorktown The Battle of Yorktown happened in 1781. American and French forces trapped British General Cornwallis in Virginia. The French navy blocked British escape by sea. Cornwallis surrendered, effectively ending the Revolutionary War. 24. Alexander Hamilton / Economic Plan Alexander Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury. His economic plan included paying off national debt, creating a national bank, and supporting manufacturing. He wanted a strong federal government and strong economy. His plan helped stabilize the new nation but caused political conflict. 25. Whiskey Rebellion The Whiskey Rebellion happened in 1794 when farmers protested a tax on whiskey. President George Washington sent federal troops to stop the rebellion. This showed that the new Constitution gave the federal government power to enforce laws. It was a contrast to the weakness shown during Shays’ Rebellion. 26. Washington’s Farewell Address Washington’s Farewell Address warned Americans against political parties and permanent foreign alliances. He believed political parties could divide the nation. He also wanted the U.S. to avoid being pulled into European conflicts. His advice influenced American foreign policy for many years. 27. James K. Polk James K. Polk was president from 1845 to 1849. He strongly supported Manifest Destiny and westward expansion. During his presidency, the U.S. gained Oregon territory and fought the Mexican-American War. The U.S. gained a large amount of land, including California and the Southwest. 28. William Henry Harrison William Henry Harrison was the 9th president of the United States. He was known as a military hero from the Battle of Tippecanoe. He gave a very long inaugural speech in cold weather and died about a month later. He had the shortest presidency in U.S. history. 29. Constitution The Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. It replaced the Articles of Confederation and created a stronger federal government. It established three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. It also created checks and balances to prevent one branch from becoming too powerful. 30. Preamble to the Constitution The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution. It begins with “We the People.” It explains the goals of the government, such as forming a more perfect union, establishing justice, ensuring peace, providing defense, promoting general welfare, and securing liberty. 31. The Republican Party The Republican Party was founded in the 1850s. It opposed the spread of slavery into western territories. Abraham Lincoln was the first Republican president. The party’s rise showed how slavery was becoming the central political issue before the Civil War. 32. Three-Fifths Compromise The Three-Fifths Compromise was made at the Constitutional Convention. It said that enslaved people would count as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation. Southern states wanted enslaved people counted for more representation. This compromise increased Southern political power while protecting slavery. 33. Checks and Balances Checks and balances allow each branch of government to limit the power of the others. For example, the president can veto laws, Congress can override vetoes, and the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional. This system prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful. 34. Intolerable Acts The Intolerable Acts were passed by Britain after the Boston Tea Party. They punished Massachusetts by closing Boston Harbor and limiting self-government. Colonists saw these acts as unfair and oppressive. They helped unite the colonies against Britain. 35. Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It protects individual freedoms such as speech, religion, press, assembly, and the right to bear arms. It was added to satisfy Anti-Federalists who feared a strong central government. 36. Impressment Impressment was the British practice of forcing American sailors into the British navy. It angered Americans and violated U.S. neutrality. Impressment was one of the major causes of the War of 1812. 37. Judicial Review / Marbury v. Madison Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional. It was established in Marbury v. Madison in 1803. Chief Justice John Marshall strengthened the power of the Supreme Court through this decision. 38. James Madison James Madison is known as the “Father of the Constitution” because he helped design the U.S. government. He also helped write the Federalist Papers and the Bill of Rights. As president, he led the country during the War of 1812. 39. War of 1812 / Battle of New Orleans The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Britain. Causes included impressment, trade restrictions, and British support for Native American resistance. The Battle of New Orleans was fought after the peace treaty had been signed, but news had not arrived. Andrew Jackson became a national hero because of the victory. 40. Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine was announced in 1823 by President James Monroe. It warned European nations not to colonize or interfere in the Americas. In return, the U.S. would stay out of European affairs. It showed growing American confidence in foreign policy. 41. John Quincy Adams / Corrupt Bargain John Quincy Adams became president after the election of 1824. No candidate won a majority, so the House of Representatives decided the election. Henry Clay supported Adams and later became Secretary of State. Andrew Jackson’s supporters called this a “corrupt bargain.” 42. Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America. It encouraged westward expansion. Supporters saw expansion as progress, but it led to Native American removal, war with Mexico, and conflict over slavery. 43. Trail of Tears / Indian Removal Act The Indian Removal Act of 1830 allowed the federal government to move Native Americans west of the Mississippi River. The Trail of Tears refers especially to the forced removal of the Cherokee. Thousands died from hunger, disease, and exposure. It is one of the darkest examples of U.S. expansion. 44. Worcester v. Georgia Worcester v. Georgia was an 1832 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that Georgia had no authority over Cherokee land. However, President Andrew Jackson did not enforce the ruling. The Cherokee were still forced to move west. 45. Missouri Compromise The Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820. Missouri entered as a slave state, and Maine entered as a free state. It also banned slavery north of the 36°30′ line in the Louisiana Territory. It temporarily balanced free and slave states but did not solve the slavery issue. 46. Alamo The Alamo was a mission in San Antonio, Texas, where Texan defenders fought Mexican forces in 1836. The defenders were defeated, but the battle became a symbol of resistance. “Remember the Alamo” became a rallying cry during the Texas Revolution. 47. Kansas-Nebraska Act The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide whether to allow slavery through popular sovereignty. It repealed the Missouri Compromise line. It led to violence in Kansas, known as “Bleeding Kansas,” and increased sectional conflict. 48. Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman escaped slavery and became a leader in the Underground Railroad. She helped many enslaved people escape to freedom. During the Civil War, she also served as a nurse, spy, and scout for the Union. She became a symbol of courage and resistance to slavery. 49. Seneca Falls Convention The Seneca Falls Convention was held in 1848 in New York. It was the first major women’s rights convention in the United States. Leaders included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. The convention demanded women’s rights, including the right to vote. 50. John Brown John Brown was a radical abolitionist who believed slavery must be ended by force. In 1859, he led a raid on Harpers Ferry to start a slave rebellion. The raid failed, and Brown was executed. His actions increased tension between North and South before the Civil War. 51. Fugitive Slave Act The Fugitive Slave Act was part of the Compromise of 1850. It required citizens to help capture escaped enslaved people. It also punished people who helped freedom seekers. Many Northerners were angered by the law because it forced them to participate in slavery. 52. Harriet Beecher Stowe / Uncle Tom’s Cabin Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. The novel showed the cruelty of slavery and became very popular in the North. It helped increase abolitionist feelings. Southerners criticized it and argued that it gave a false picture of slavery. 53. Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott v. Sandford was an 1857 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that enslaved people were not citizens and could not sue in court. It also said Congress could not ban slavery in the territories. This decision angered Northerners and made sectional conflict worse. 54. Lincoln-Douglas Debates The Lincoln-Douglas debates happened in 1858 during the Illinois Senate race. Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas debated slavery’s expansion. Lincoln argued slavery should not spread, while Douglas supported popular sovereignty. Although Lincoln lost the Senate race, the debates made him nationally known. 55. Popular Sovereignty Popular sovereignty means allowing people in a territory to vote on whether to allow slavery. Stephen Douglas supported this idea. It was used in the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Instead of solving the slavery issue, it led to violence and conflict. 56. Fort Sumter Fort Sumter was a federal fort in South Carolina. Confederate forces fired on it in April 1861. This attack began the Civil War. After Fort Sumter, more Southern states joined the Confederacy. 57. Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by Abraham Lincoln in 1863. It declared enslaved people free in Confederate-controlled areas. It did not immediately free all enslaved people, but it changed the purpose of the war. The Civil War became a fight to preserve the Union and end slavery. 58. Gettysburg Address The Gettysburg Address was a speech given by Abraham Lincoln in 1863 after the Battle of Gettysburg. Lincoln honored the soldiers who died and explained the meaning of the war. He said the nation was fighting for democracy and equality. The speech is one of the most famous in American history. 59. Reconstruction Reconstruction was the period after the Civil War when the U.S. tried to rebuild the South and reunite the nation. It also aimed to define freedom and rights for formerly enslaved people. During Reconstruction, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments were passed. However, racism, Black Codes, and groups like the Ku Klux Klan limited progress. 60. Civil War Amendments The Civil War Amendments are the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment gave citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment gave Black men the right to vote. 61. Roger Williams Roger Williams was a Puritan minister who believed in religious freedom and separation of church and state. He was banished from Massachusetts for his beliefs. He founded Rhode Island, which became known for religious tolerance. His ideas influenced later American ideas about freedom of religion.

Thẻ ghi nhớ: Vocabulary for IELTS | Quizlet

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Cervical Spine Questions 1. A patient arrived from the ER and the physician wants to best validate stability of the cervical spine. Which position(s) would be performed? Answer: Lateral flexion and extension 2. How many cervical vertebrae need to be visualized on the AP cervical image? Answer: C3–C7 3. If spinous processes are present on the oblique image and the intervertebral foramina are not open, what is the positioning error? Answer: Over-rotation 4. What is the positioning error if the right zygapophyseal joint is closed and the left zygapophyseal joint is open on an Open Mouth image? Answer: The patient’s head is tilted toward the right 5. When observing the Open Mouth image, the left C1–C2 joint is open while the right C1–C2 joint is closed. What is the positioning error? Answer: The patient’s head was tilted toward the right 6. On an AP cervical spine image, the base of the skull is superimposed on C3. What should be done for the repeat exposure? Answer: Tuck the mandible toward the chest 7. On an AP cervical spine image, the mandible is superimposed on C3. What needs to be corrected? Answer: Extend mandible 8. On an Open Mouth image, the patient’s teeth are superimposed on the dens. What positioning correction must be made? Answer: Extend the patient’s chin 9. On an oblique cervical spine image, the intervertebral foramina are not round and the pedicle is located posteriorly across the vertebral body. What is the positioning error? Answer: The patient was over-rotated 10. On an Open Mouth image, the dens is obscured by the base of the skull. What positioning correction must be made? Answer: Tuck the chin more 11. On a lateral cervical spine image, the zygapophyseal joints are not superimposed. What is the positioning error? Answer: The patient was rotated and not in a true lateral position 12. Which cervical spine projection best demonstrates the spinous processes? Answer: Lateral 13. Which anatomy is best demonstrated by the RAO position? Answer: Right intervertebral foramina 14. Which anatomy needs to be aligned for a properly positioned AP cervical spine? Answer: Mandible and base of skull 15. Which position best demonstrates the height of the vertebral body? Answer: Lateral 16. Which position best demonstrates the zygapophyseal joints? Answer: Lateral 17. Which projection of the cervical spine will open the left intervertebral foramina? Answer: LAO 18. How many vertebrae must be included on the lateral cervical spine image? Answer: C1–T1 19

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Many people use social media to get in touch with other people and know about news events.

biology unit 6(nitrogen cyle) new The Nitrogen Cycle Higher Tier Only Nitrogen is present as N2 gas in the atmosphere and within biological molecules, e.g. proteins, in the tissues of living organisms Nitrogen is cycled through ecosystems by the processes of the nitrogen cycle Uptake of nitrogen by living organisms N2 in the atmosphere is made available to living organisms by the process of nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixation is carried out by nitrogen-fixing bacteria which convert N2 gas into ammonium compounds; these compounds are converted into nitrates in the soil Nitrogen-fixing bacteria can be free-living in the soil or they can live within root nodules of legume plants, e.g. peas, beans and clover Nitrogen gas can also be fixed by lightning when it strikes the earth, or during the production of chemical fertilisers After nitrogen fixation has occurred plants absorb the nitrates in the soil and use the nitrogen to build plant proteins Transfer of nitrogen between living organisms Animals feed on plants and digest the proteins in the plant tissues, providing nitrogen to build animal proteins Nitrogen may then be passed from one consumer to another up the food chain in the same way Release of nitrogen from living tissues Nitrogen from living organisms is returned to the soil in the form of ammonia by the action of decomposers such as bacteria and fungi When animals and plants die the proteins inside their tissues are broken down by the action of decomposers and returned to the soil in the form of ammonia Waste, i.e. urine and faeces, from animals contains urea, which is converted into ammonia by the action of the bacterial enzyme urease The plants can’t absorb ammonia so nitrifying bacteria convert the ammonia to nitrates which can then be taken up again by plants The conversion of ammonium compounds to nitrates is known as nitrification Returning nitrogen to the atmosphere Nitrates in the soil can be converted back into nitrogen gas (N2) by the action of denitrifying bacteria This process is known as denitrification Denitrifying bacteria are active in anaerobic conditions, e.g. in waterlogged or compacted soil Farmers can decrease the activity of denitrifying bacteria by ploughing the soil to increase aeration Nitrogen cycle diagram nitrogen-cycle-gcse The nitrogen cycle involves nitrogen fixation, decomposition, nitrification and denitrification Factors affecting the nitrogen cycle Because so many processes within the nitrogen cycle are carried out by microorganisms the cycle can be affected by factors that affect microorganism activity, e.g. Temperature This affects the rate at which enzyme-controlled reactions can occur Oxygen availability Aerobic bacteria rely on oxygen for respiration Low oxygen availability may lead to an increase in the activity of anaerobic bacteria, e.g. denitrifying bacteria pH This affects the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions as extreme pH levels can cause denaturation Water Water is needed by living organisms, so the rate of microbial activity increases in soil where moisture is present The presence of heavy metals in the soil Heavy metals, e.g. mercury and lead, can be toxic to the metabolism of microorganisms These factors are known to influence the rate at which decomposition occurs in compost heaps and landfill sites

Understand the Basic Principles of Haircutting Good haircuts begin with an understanding of the shape of the head, referred to as the head form, also known as head shape. Hair responds differently on various areas of the head depending on the length and the cutting technique used. Being aware of where the head form curves, turns, and changes will help you achieve the look that you and your client are seeking. Reference Points Reference points on the head mark where the surface of the head changes, such as the ears, jawline, occipital bone, or apex. These points are used to establish design lines (figure 16-1). An understanding of head shape and reference points will help you in the following ways: Finding balance within the design, so that both sides of the haircut turn out the same. Developing the ability to create the same haircut consistently. Showing where and when it is necessary to change technique to make up for irregularities (such as a flat crown) in the head form. Standard reference points are defined below: Parietal ridge (puh-RY-ate-ul RIJ). This is the widest area of the head, starting at the temples and ending at the bottom of the crown. This area is easily found by placing a comb flat on the side of the head: The parietal ridge is found where the head starts to curve away from the comb. The parietal ridge is also referred to as the crest area (figure 16-2). Occipital bone (ahk-SIP-ih-tul BOHN). The bone that protrudes at the base of the skull is the occipital bone. To find the occipital bone, simply feel the back of the skull or place a comb flat against the nape and find where the comb leaves the head (figure 16-3). Apex (AY-peks). This is the highest point on the top of the head. This area is easily located by placing a comb flat on the top of the head. The comb will rest on that highest point (figure 16-4). Four corners. These may be located in one of two ways. One is by placing two combs flat against the side and back, and then locating the back corner at the point where the two combs meet (figure 16-5). The second is by making two diagonal lines crossing the apex of the head, which then point directly to the front and back corners (figure 16-6). You will not necessarily use every reference point for every haircut, but it is important to know where they are. The location of the four corners, for example, signals a change in the shape of the head from flat to round and vice versa. This change in the surface can have a significant effect on the outcome of the haircut. For example, the two front corners represent the widest points in the bang area. Cutting past these points can cause the bang to end up on the sides of the haircut once it is dry, creating an undesirable result. Areas of the Head The areas of the head are described below (figure 16-7): Top. By locating the parietal ridge, you can find the hair that grows on the top of the head. This hair lies on the head shape. Hair that grows below the parietal ridge, or crest, hangs because of gravity. You can locate the top by parting the hair at the parietal ridge, and continuing all the way around the head. Front. By making a parting, or drawing a line from the apex to the back of the ear, you can separate the hair that naturally falls in front of the ear from the hair behind the ear. Everything that falls in front of the ear is considered the front. Sides. The sides are easy to locate. They include all hair from the back of the ear forward, below the parietal ridge. Crown. The crown is the area between the apex and the back of the parietal ridge. On many people, the crown is flat and is the site of cowlicks or whorls. Because of this, it is extremely important to pay special attention to this area when haircutting. Nape. The nape is the area at the back part of the neck and consists of the hair below the occipital bone. The nape can be located by taking a horizontal parting, or by making a horizontal line across the back of the head at the occipital bone. Back. By making a parting or drawing a line from the apex to the back of the ear, you can locate the back of the head, which consists of all the hair that falls naturally behind the ear. When you have identified the front, you have also identified the back. Bang area. also known as fringe area. The bang area is a triangular section that begins at the apex and ends at the front corners (figure 16-8). This area can be located by placing a comb on top of the head so that the middle of the comb is balanced on the apex. The spot where the comb leaves the head in front of the apex is where the bang area begins. Note that the bang area, when combed into a natural falling position, falls no farther than the outer corners of the eyes

Lecture 2.2: Mania and Bipolar Disorder

Many proteins are enzymes

Chemical Magic Vocabulary

Earth Science, Space & Chemistry Study Guide Glaciers 1. What are the two main types of glaciers? Mountain (alpine) Continental 2. What shape is a glacier-carved valley? U-shaped 3. What conditions are needed for glaciers to form? Cold summers Heavy snowfall Snow does not fully melt 4. Why are glaciers important? Store freshwater Shape land Affect climate Earth’s Layers & Plate Tectonics 5. What is the thinnest layer of Earth? Crust 6. What are the three main layers of Earth? Crust Mantle Core 7. What is plate tectonics? Earth’s crust is made of moving plates 8. What are the three plate boundaries? Divergent Convergent Transform Memory Trick Divergent = divide Convergent = collide Transform = slide past 9. What causes earthquakes? Movement of tectonic plates 10. What is an aftershock? Smaller earthquake after a major one 11. What is a fault? Crack in Earth where movement happens Rocks, Volcanoes & Erosion 12. Which rock forms when magma or lava cools? Igneous rock 13. What are the three rock types? Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Memory Trick Igneous = fire Sedimentary = layers Metamorphic = changed by heat and pressure 14. What is the difference between magma and lava? Magma = underground Lava = surface 15. What are the three volcano activity levels? Active Dormant Extinct 16. What are the three volcano shapes? Shield Composite Cinder cone 17. What is weathering? Breaking down rock 18. What is erosion? Movement of dirt and rocks by water, wind, ice, or gravity 19. What is mechanical weathering? Physical breaking of rock 20. What is chemical weathering? Rock changes chemically 21. What is terracing? Flat steps cut into hillsides to reduce erosion Caves 22. What is the most common type of cave? Solution cave 23. Difference between stalactites and stalagmites Stalactites hang from the ceiling Stalagmites grow from the floor Memory Trick Stalactites hold “tight” to the ceiling Stalagmites “might” reach the ceiling Important Earth Science Terms 24. What is uniformitarianism? Natural processes today worked the same in the past 25. Difference between soil and dirt Soil has nutrients and supports life 26. What is elevation? Height above sea level 27. How deep have scientists explored into Earth? Only partway through Earth’s crust Atmosphere, Weather & Climate 28. Layers of the atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Memory Trick The Sky Makes Tiny Explosions 29. What causes seasons? Earth’s tilted axis 30. Difference between weather and climate Weather = short-term conditions Climate = long-term average weather 31. What causes tides? Gravity from the moon and sun Fossils & Resources 32. Types of fossils Mold Cast Trace fossils 33. Renewable vs nonrenewable resources Renewable = naturally replaced Nonrenewable = limited supply Space Unit Solar System 34. Planets in order from the Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Memory Trick My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos 35. What is the hottest planet? Venus 36. Largest planet Jupiter 37. Smallest planet Mercury 38. Planet that rotates on its side Uranus 39. Inner planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars 40. Outer planets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune 41. Gas giants Jupiter Saturn 42. Ice giants Uranus Neptune 43. Why is Pluto not considered a planet? It has not cleared its orbit 44. What keeps planets in orbit? Gravity 45. Rotation vs revolution Rotation = spinning Revolution = orbiting Space Objects 46. Asteroid Rock in space 47. Meteor Streak of light in atmosphere 48. Meteorite Meteor that hits Earth 49. Comet Ice and dust object with a tail Space Exploration 50. NASA program that put humans on the moon Apollo Program 51. First man on the moon Neil Armstrong 52. Space shuttle that exploded Challenger Sun & Stars 53. Two elements that make up most of the sun Hydrogen Helium 54. What are sunspots? Cooler, darker spots on the sun 55. Surface temperature of the sun About 11,000°F 56. Type of energy from the sun Electromagnetic energy 57. How long sunlight takes to reach Earth About 8 minutes 20 seconds 58. Brightness of a star depends on Distance from Earth Amount of light it gives off 59. Supernova Exploding star 60. Nova Temporary brightening of a star 61. Nebula Cloud of dust and gas in space 62. Plasma Material the sun is made of Moon & Eclipses 63. Solar eclipse Moon blocks sunlight from reaching Earth 64. Why the moon has many craters Almost no atmosphere to burn up meteors 65. Why we only see one side of the moon Moon rotates and revolves at the same speed 66. Moon phases to know New Moon Waxing Crescent Full Moon Waning Gibbous Last Quarter Shortcut New → Waxing → Full → Waning Space Vocabulary 67. Milky Way Our galaxy 68. Astronomy Study of space 69. Light-year Distance light travels in one year 70. Constellation Group of stars forming a pattern 71. Most common galaxy shape Elliptical galaxy Chemistry Basics 72. What is an ion? Atom that gains or loses electrons and becomes charged 73. Ionic bond Electrons transferred between atoms Metal + nonmetal 74. Covalent bond Atoms share electrons Nonmetal + nonmetal 75. Metallic bond Metals bonded with freely moving electrons Metal + metal 76. Valence electrons Electrons in the outer energy level 77. Atomic number Number of protons 78. Exothermic reaction Reaction that releases energy 79. What metals usually do with electrons Lose electrons easily 80. Sulfur’s atomic number 16 81. Carbon valence electrons 4 82. Protons in arsenic 33 Parts of an Atom 83. Proton Positive charge 84. Neutron Neutral charge 85. Electron Negative charge 86. Where particles are found Protons & neutrons = nucleus Electrons = electron cloud Periodic Table 87. Groups/Families Vertical columns Same valence electrons 88. Periods Horizontal rows Same number of energy levels Metals 89. Six characteristics of metals Shiny/lustrous Solid at room temperature Malleable Ductile Conduct heat/electricity Reactive Noble Gases 90. Why are noble gases nonreactive? Full valence electron shell Other Chemistry Terms 91. Electronegativity Ability of an atom to attract electrons 92. Free electron model Electrons move freely through metals 93. First law of thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or destroyed 94. Reactants Starting substances in a reaction 95. Products New substances formed Acids & Bases 96. pH scale 0–6 = acidic 7 = neutral 8–14 = basic Nutrition 97. Three macronutrients Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Examples Carbs = bread/pasta Fats = avocado/nuts Proteins = meat/beans 98

NCLEX Review: Mental Health Disorders Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Excessive worry lasting 6 months or more Symptoms: Restlessness Muscle tension Fatigue Poor concentration Sleep disturbance Panic Disorder Sudden intense fear with: Chest pain Palpitations Shortness of breath Feeling of doom Nursing: Stay with client Calm environment Short/simple communication Phobias Irrational fear of object/situation Treatment: Exposure therapy CBT SSRIs sometimes used OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder) Obsessions = intrusive thoughts Compulsions = repetitive behaviors to reduce anxiety Nursing: Do not suddenly stop rituals Set limits gradually Encourage coping skills PTSD Triggered after traumatic event Symptoms: Flashbacks Hypervigilance Nightmares Avoidance Priority: Safety Trauma-informed care Depression Disorders Major Depressive Disorder Symptoms SIGECAPS: Sleep changes Interest loss Guilt Energy low Concentration poor Appetite changes Psychomotor changes Suicidal thoughts Nursing Priorities Suicide assessment Nutrition/hydration Sleep/rest Medication adherence Medications SSRIs Examples: Sertraline Fluoxetine Teachings: Takes weeks to work Do not stop abruptly Watch for serotonin syndrome Serotonin Syndrome Symptoms: Agitation Fever Tremor Hyperreflexia Diarrhea Bipolar Disorder Mania Symptoms Mnemonic: DIG FAST Distractibility Indiscretion Grandiosity Flight of ideas Activity increased Sleep deficit Talkative Nursing Care Reduce stimulation Set firm limits High-calorie finger foods Encourage rest Medications Mood Stabilizers Lithium Anticonvulsants Lithium Toxicity Therapeutic level: 0.6–1.2 mEq/L Toxic signs: Tremor Vomiting Confusion Ataxia Severe diarrhea Important: Maintain sodium/fluid intake Dehydration increases toxicity risk Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders Positive Symptoms Things added: Hallucinations Delusions Paranoia Disorganized speech Negative Symptoms Things lost: Flat affect Social withdrawal Anhedonia Lack of motivation Hallucination Nursing Response Present reality “I do not hear the voices.” Assess for command hallucinations Delusions Do NOT argue. Respond: “I understand this feels real to you.” Antipsychotics First Generation Haloperidol Risk: EPS Tardive dyskinesia Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) Second Generation Olanzapine Risperidone Risk: Weight gain Diabetes Metabolic syndrome EPS Symptoms Acute dystonia Akathisia Parkinsonism Tardive dyskinesia Treatment: Benztropine Diphenhydramine Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome Medical emergency: Fever Rigidity Confusion Elevated CK Personality Disorders Cluster A Odd/eccentric Paranoid Schizoid Schizotypal Cluster B Dramatic/emotional Antisocial Borderline Histrionic Narcissistic Borderline Personality Disorder Fear of abandonment Splitting staff Self-harm risk Nursing: Consistent boundaries Team communication Cluster C Anxious/fearful Avoidant Dependent Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa Severe restriction Distorted body image Bradycardia Electrolyte imbalance Priority: Monitor cardiac status Daily weights Observe after meals Bulimia Nervosa Binge/purge behavior Normal weight often seen Complications: Hypokalemia Dental erosion Substance Use Disorders Alcohol Withdrawal Starts within hours after last drinkd

Schizophrenia / Mania Drugs (6)

magic book 2 food

Magic Lens Sentence Analysis Vocabulary

4.5 MAGIC AND WITCHCRAFT