the invisible man

Uscire insieme: inviti, cinema e preferenze

kin init test reveiw (1)

The Law of Incitement

1. Exploration & Native Americans Christopher Columbus Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. Wanted to find a western route to Asia. Reached the Caribbean instead. His voyages began sustained European contact with the Americas. Led to European colonization and the Columbian Exchange. Conquistadores Spanish explorers/conquerors who sought gold, land, and converts. Helped Spain conquer large Native American empires. Often used military force and alliances with rival Native groups. Mayas, Incas, Aztecs Major civilizations in the Americas before European conquest. Aztecs: centered in Mexico; conquered by Cortés. Incas: centered in the Andes/South America; conquered by Pizarro. Mayas: Central America; famous for cities, writing, mathematics, and astronomy. Hernando Cortés Spanish conquistador. Conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519–1521. Defeated Montezuma/Moctezuma II and captured Tenochtitlán. Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire. Operated in present-day Peru. Montezuma Aztec ruler when Cortés arrived. Also called Moctezuma II. His empire was eventually conquered by Cortés and his allies. Hernando de Soto Spanish explorer who explored the southeastern part of what became the United States. His expedition encountered Native peoples and reached the Mississippi River. Francisco de Coronado Spanish explorer who explored the American Southwest and Great Plains. Searched for the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. Jacques Cartier French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River. His voyages helped France establish claims in North America. John Cabot Italian explorer sailing for England. Explored the North Atlantic coast of North America in 1497. Helped England establish a claim to North American territory. Prince Henry the Navigator Portuguese prince who supported exploration. Helped Portugal develop navigation and sailing technology. Portuguese exploration contributed to the development of the Atlantic slave trade. ⸻ 2. Spanish, French & English Colonization Joint-stock company A company where investors pool money to fund a business. Why important: English colonies such as Virginia were partly financed through joint-stock companies. Virginia Company English joint-stock company. Founded Jamestown in 1607. Investors hoped to make money from the colony. Jamestown First permanent English settlement in North America, 1607. Located in Virginia. Suffered from disease, starvation, conflict, and poor leadership. Tobacco eventually helped make the colony profitable. Tidewater Coastal area of Virginia and surrounding colonies. Early English settlements were concentrated here. Piedmont Inland region between the Tidewater/coastal plain and Appalachian Mountains. Settlement expanded into this area as colonies grew. Coureurs de bois French “runners of the woods.” French colonists/traders who lived and traveled among Native Americans. Participated heavily in the fur trade. Samuel de Champlain French explorer. Founded Quebec in 1608. Known as the “Father of New France.” Developed alliances with Native Americans. ⸻ 3. Roanoke & Early Virginia Sir Walter Raleigh English supporter of colonization. Sponsored the attempted settlement at Roanoke. Roanoke English colony established in the 1580s. Eventually disappeared. Called the “Lost Colony.” John Smith Leader at Jamestown. Helped organize the settlement and enforce discipline. Famous for his relationship with Pocahontas, although later accounts are disputed. “Starving Time” Winter of 1609–1610 at Jamestown. Colonists experienced extreme hunger, disease, and death. Demonstrated how difficult early colonization was. John Rolfe Helped make Virginia economically successful by growing tobacco. Married Pocahontas. Tobacco became Virginia’s major cash crop. Headright system Colonists received land for bringing people to Virginia. Encouraged immigration. Helped create large plantations and contributed to social/economic inequality. Freeman A colonist who possessed certain political rights, including the ability to participate in government. Political rights were generally limited to certain white male colonists. House of Burgesses Created in Virginia in 1619. First representative legislative assembly in the English colonies. Important development in colonial self-government. 1618 reforms of the Virginia Company The Virginia Company changed its policies to attract settlers and make Virginia successful. Included: More representative government. Greater incentives for settlers. Expansion of land ownership. Greater economic opportunity. Result: Virginia became more attractive to settlers. ⸻ 4. Puritans & Religion John Calvin Protestant religious thinker. Developed Calvinism. Believed in predestination. Predestination The belief that God has already determined who will be saved. Puritanism Protestant movement that wanted to reform the Church of England. Puritans believed the English church still contained too many Catholic practices. Separatists Puritans who believed the Church of England could not be reformed. Wanted to separate completely from it. The Pilgrims were Separatists. Non-Separatist Puritans Wanted to reform the Church of England rather than leave it completely. Many settled Massachusetts Bay. Pilgrims Separatist Puritans. Settled at Plymouth in 1620. Signed the Mayflower Compact. Mayflower Compact Agreement signed by Plymouth settlers. Established self-government based on majority rule. Important early example of colonial self-government. Plymouth Colony founded by Pilgrims in 1620. Later became part of Massachusetts. William Bradford Pilgrim leader and governor of Plymouth. Helped maintain the colony. Wrote about Plymouth’s early history. Massachusetts Bay Colony Founded by Puritans in 1630. Much larger than Plymouth. Centered around Boston. Governed according to Puritan religious beliefs. John Winthrop Governor of Massachusetts Bay. Described Massachusetts as a “city upon a hill.” “City upon a hill” Winthrop’s idea that Massachusetts should serve as an example of a successful Christian society to the world. Covenant A religious agreement between God and a community. Puritans believed their communities had a special covenant with God. “Visible saints” Puritans who demonstrated that they had received God’s grace and were considered members of the church. “Invisible saints” Those believed to have God’s grace/salvation, even though humans could not truly know who was saved. “Saving grace” The belief that God’s grace could lead a person to salvation. ⸻ 5. New England Religious Conflicts Anne Hutchinson Puritan woman who challenged Massachusetts religious leaders. Believed faith/grace was more important than following religious rules. Put on trial and banished from Massachusetts. Shows the limits of religious tolerance in Massachusetts. Roger Williams Founded Rhode Island. Believed in: Religious freedom Separation of church and government Fairer treatment of Native Americans Banished from Massachusetts. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 1639. Established a representative government in Connecticut. Often considered one of the first written constitutions in America. King Philip’s War 1675–1676. Major conflict between New England colonists and Native Americans led by Metacom, whom colonists called King Philip. Resulted in enormous destruction and loss of Native American land and power. Toleration Act of 1649 Maryland law granting religious toleration to Christians. Intended especially to protect Catholics. Important early example of religious toleration, although it was limited. ⸻ 6. Massachusetts Education Massachusetts Education Act of 1647 Required towns to establish schools when they reached certain population sizes. Why? Puritans wanted people to be able to read the Bible. Important: Shows how strongly education and religion were connected in Puritan society. ⸻ 7. Colonial Regions New England Colonies Examples: Massachusetts Plymouth Connecticut Rhode Island New Hampshire Important characteristics Religious motivations Puritan influence Small farms Town-centered communities Fishing Shipbuilding Lumber Commerce Less suitable climate for large cash-crop plantations ⸻ Middle Colonies Examples: New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Delaware Important characteristics Religious diversity More ethnic diversity Fertile farmland Grain production Large ports Trade Cities such as New York and Philadelphia ⸻ Southern Colonies Examples: Virginia Maryland North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Important characteristics Plantation agriculture Tobacco, rice, indigo Slavery Large landowners Warm climate Greater social/economic inequality ⸻ 8. Types of Colonies Corporate colony Colony controlled by a company. Example: Virginia originally operated under the Virginia Company. Royal colony Controlled directly by the English king. Governor appointed by the king. Proprietary colony Granted by the king to an individual or group. Proprietor had significant control. Example: Pennsylvania → William Penn Charter of Liberties Early New York document providing certain rights and outlining representative government. Associated with efforts to establish political participation in the colony. ⸻ 9. William Penn & Quakers William Penn Quaker. Founded Pennsylvania. Wanted a colony based on religious tolerance. Had relatively peaceful relationships with Native Americans. Quakers / Society of Friends Protestant religious group. Believed in spiritual equality. Rejected many traditional church structures. Supported religious tolerance. Women had greater religious participation than in many other colonial communities. George Calvert Also known as Lord Baltimore. Catholic Englishman. Received land that became Maryland. Wanted a place where Catholics could practice their religion more freely. ⸻ 10. Georgia James Oglethorpe Founded Georgia in 1732. Intended Georgia partly as a buffer against Spanish Florida. Also wanted to create opportunities for poor English people. ⸻ 11. Pennsylvania & New York Patroonship Dutch system in New Netherland. Large land grants were given to wealthy individuals called patroons. Encouraged large estates. Quitrent A fee/rent paid to a proprietor for use of land. Common in proprietary colonies. ⸻ 12. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion 1676 Virginia. Nathaniel Bacon led settlers against Native Americans and Virginia’s government. Bacon’s followers believed Governor Berkeley was not protecting frontier settlers. Why important? Exposed class tensions between wealthy planters and poorer colonists. Afterward, Virginia increasingly relied on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. ⸻ 13. Colonial Social Classes Indentured servants Europeans who agreed to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to America. After their contract ended, they could become free. Freedom dues Things given to indentured servants when their contract ended. Could include: Clothing Tools Land or supplies Redemptioners European immigrants who agreed to work for a period of time after arriving in America to pay off transportation costs. ⸻ 14. Slavery Chattel slavery System in which enslaved people were treated legally as property. Slavery became hereditary. Enslaved people had extremely limited/no legal freedom. Middle Passage Forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. Part of the triangular trade. Conditions were extremely overcrowded and deadly. Slave codes Laws restricting the rights and freedoms of enslaved people. They often: Prevented movement. Restricted education. Restricted assembly. Defined enslaved people as property. Made slavery hereditary. ⸻ 15. Stono Rebellion Stono Rebellion 1739, South Carolina. Enslaved Africans rebelled and attempted to escape toward Spanish Florida. Colonial authorities eventually suppressed the rebellion. Why important? Led to even stricter slave laws. ⸻ 16. Triangular Trade A trading system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Simplified: Europe → Africa Manufactured goods Africa → Americas Enslaved Africans Americas → Europe Sugar Tobacco Rice Other raw materials ⸻ 17. Mercantilism Economic theory used by European empires. Basic idea: Colonies exist to benefit the mother country. England wanted colonies to: Supply raw materials. Buy English manufactured goods. Increase England’s wealth. Strengthen England’s economy. ⸻ 18. Navigation Acts English laws regulating colonial trade. They required much colonial trade to: Use English ships. Pass through English-controlled channels. Benefit England. Goal: strengthen mercantilism. ⸻ 19. Molasses Act 1733 Taxed foreign molasses imported into British colonies. Designed to protect British sugar producers in the Caribbean. Colonists often avoided or resisted the tax through smuggling. Woolens Act Restricted colonial production/trade of woolen goods. Intended to protect English manufacturers. Hat Act Restricted colonial production/export of hats. Another example of Britain controlling colonial manufacturing. Iron Act Encouraged production of certain raw iron products in the colonies but restricted production of finished iron goods. Britain wanted colonies to supply raw materials while buying manufactured products from Britain. BIG IDEA: These laws show mercantilism and British attempts to control colonial economies. ⸻ 20. Dominion of New England Dominion of New England Created by King James II in 1686. Combined several New England colonies under one government. Why? Increase royal control. Enforce Navigation Acts. Reduce colonial self-government. Sir Edmund Andros Royal governor of the Dominion of New England. Strongly enforced royal policies. Very unpopular with many colonists. ⸻ 21. Glorious Revolution Glorious Revolution — 1688 English people and Parliament removed James II. William and Mary became monarchs. Increased the power of Parliament. Colonial effect: Colonists overthrew the Dominion of New England government. Sir Edmund Andros was removed. Colonists regained some self-government. ⸻ 22. Political Deference Political deference The belief that ordinary people should respect and defer to wealthy, powerful, or socially prominent leaders. Colonial society was often hierarchical. ⸻ 23. Lower House of the Legislature The elected part of a colonial legislature representing ordinary property-owning colonists. Examples: House of Burgesses Colonial assemblies Important: These assemblies helped establish the tradition of representative government. ⸻ 24. The Great Awakening Great Awakening Religious revival movement in the 1730s–1740s. Preachers emphasized: Personal faith Emotional religious experiences Salvation Individual relationships with God It challenged established churches and religious authorities. Jonathan Edwards Famous Great Awakening preacher. Known for the sermon: “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” Emphasized God’s power and the need for conversion. George Whitefield Extremely popular traveling preacher. Preached throughout the colonies. Helped spread the Great Awakening. Old Lights People who supported traditional, established religious practices. New Lights People who supported the emotional revival-style religion of the Great Awakening. Baptists Protestant group that grew during the Great Awakening. Emphasized personal faith and baptism. Helped increase religious diversity. ⸻ 25. John Peter Zenger John Peter Zenger New York printer/journalist. Put on trial for criticizing the colonial governor. His lawyer argued that truthful statements should not be considered libel. Why important? His trial became an important symbol associated with freedom of the press. ⸻ 26. Maryland & Carolina Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina Document associated with governing Carolina. Created a hierarchical political/social structure. Helped establish an aristocratic plantation society. Slavery became increasingly important in Carolina. Established churches A government-supported official church. In some colonies, taxes helped support the established church. Important contrast: Established churches = government + religion connected. Rhode Island/Pennsylvania = greater religious freedom. ⸻ 27. Great Migration Great Migration, 1630–1643 Large migration of English Puritans to Massachusetts Bay and other New England colonies. Why? Religious motivations Political/religious conflict in England Desire to build Puritan communities Important: This was different from the much later Great Migration of African Americans during the 20th century. ⸻ 28. Enclosure Movement Enclosure Movement In England, landowners enclosed common lands and combined small fields into larger private farms. Effect: Some small farmers lost access to land. Increased movement of people toward cities and overseas colonies. Helped contribute to English migration to America. ⸻ 29. “City Upon a Hill” vs. Religious Tolerance Know this contrast for APUSH: Massachusetts Bay → Puritan religious society → Limited religious tolerance Rhode Island → Roger Williams → Religious freedom Pennsylvania → William Penn → Quakerism + religious tolerance Maryland → Catholic refuge → Toleration Act of 1649 ⸻ ⭐ The MOST IMPORTANT Connections to Know These are the connections your teacher is likely looking for in APUSH questions. Tobacco → Virginia John Rolfe → tobacco → profitable Virginia → plantations → labor demand → indentured servants → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → class conflict → elites become more suspicious of poor white workers → increased reliance on African slavery Puritans → Massachusetts Puritans → Great Migration → Massachusetts Bay → John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Separatists → Plymouth Separatists → Pilgrims → Mayflower → Plymouth → Mayflower Compact Religious disagreement → Rhode Island Anne Hutchinson/Roger Williams → conflict with Massachusetts → Rhode Island → religious freedom Quakers → Pennsylvania William Penn → Quakers → Pennsylvania → religious tolerance Mercantilism → Navigation Acts Mercantilism → Britain wants colonies to benefit England → Navigation Acts → trade restrictions Great Awakening → religious change Great Awakening → emotional religion → New Lights → challenges established churches → increased religious diversity Slavery → plantation economy Cash crops → labor demand → African slavery → slave codes → racial hierarchy

Microbiology Chapter 1: An Invisible World

Chapter 2: How We See the Invisible World

science innit

Las partes del cuerpo--Invisible

init 3 JOB INTERVIEWS

Chap 2: How We See the Invisible World

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Interview Invitation Review

📚 Advanced Vocabulary — Notes 1–20 1. Abundant — plentiful; a lot 2. Accurate — correct; exact 3. Admire — respect someone/something 4. Adverse — harmful; negative 5. Agile — quick and able to move easily 6. Alleviate — reduce; make less serious 7. Ambiguous — unclear; can have different meanings 8. Amiable — friendly and pleasant 9. Ample — enough; more than enough 10. Anecdote — a short story about an event 11. Anticipate — expect something to happen 12. Apparent — obvious; easy to see 13. Apprehend — understand 14. Arduous — very difficult; requiring effort 15. Articulate — express ideas clearly 16. Assert — state something confidently 17. Astute — clever; able to understand things quickly 18. Authentic — real; genuine 19. Avid — very enthusiastic about something 20. Benevolent — kind; wanting to help others 21–40 21. Bliss — great happiness 22. Boast — talk proudly about yourself 23. Bold — brave; confident 24. Brief — short 25. Candid — honest and direct 26. Capable — skilled; able to do something 27. Cautious — careful to avoid danger or mistakes 28. Cease — stop 29. Clarify — make something easier to understand 30. Coherent — logical and easy to understand 31. Compassion — kindness toward someone who is suffering 32. Competent — able; having the necessary skills 33. Comprehend — understand 34. Concise — brief but clear 35. Confident — self-assured; believing in yourself 36. Conquer — defeat; overcome 37. Conscious — aware 38. Consistent — regular; staying the same 39. Constructive — helpful; intended to improve something 40. Contemplate — think deeply about something 41–60 41. Convince — persuade someone to believe/do something 42. Courageous — brave 43. Credible — believable; trustworthy 44. Crucial — extremely important 45. Cultivate — develop or improve 46. Curious — eager to know or learn 47. Dazzling — extremely bright or impressive 48. Decisive — firm; able to make decisions 49. Dedicate — devote time/effort to something 50. Deliberate — careful and intentional 51. Delight — great pleasure or happiness 52. Dense — thick; closely packed 53. Depict — describe or show 54. Deteriorate — become worse 55. Diligent — hardworking and careful 56. Discreet — careful; not attracting attention 57. Distinct — clearly different 58. Diverse — varied; including different types 59. Dynamic — energetic; active 60. Eager — very excited or ready to do something 61–80 61. Eloquent — fluent and persuasive in speaking/writing 62. Elusive — difficult to find, catch, or understand 63. Embark — begin something new 64. Eminent — famous and respected 65. Empathy — understanding another person’s feelings 66. Endure — bear; tolerate something difficult 67. Enhance — improve 68. Enormous — extremely large 69. Enthusiastic — very excited/interested 70. Essential — absolutely necessary 71. Ethical — morally right 72. Evaluate — judge the quality/value of something 73. Evident — clear; obvious 74. Exceptional — unusually good; outstanding 75. Exaggerate — make something seem bigger/more important than it really is 76. Exquisite — extremely beautiful 77. Extensive — large or wide-ranging 78. Fabricate — invent or make up 79. Fascinate — interest someone greatly 80. Feasible — possible; practical 81–100 81. Fierce — strong; aggressive 82. Flourish — grow or develop well 83. Fortunate — lucky 84. Fragile — delicate; easily damaged 85. Frequent — happening often 86. Fundamental — basic; essential 87. Generous — willing to give or share 88. Genuine — real; sincere 89. Glorious — magnificent; wonderful 90. Grateful — thankful 91. Harmonious — peaceful; working well together 92. Hesitate — pause because you are unsure 93. Humble — modest; not thinking you are better than others 94. Ideal — perfect or most suitable 95. Identical — exactly the same 96. Illustrate — explain or show with an example 97. Immense — extremely large 98. Imminent — about to happen 99. Impart — give or communicate information 100. Imply — suggest without saying directly 101–120 101. Impressive — remarkable; causing admiration 102. Incline — tend toward something; be likely to 103. Incredible — amazing; difficult to believe 104. Indicate — show or point out 105. Indifferent — uninterested; not caring 106. Industrious — hardworking 107. Inevitable — unavoidable; certain to happen 108. Influence — affect someone or something 109. Ingenious — clever and creative 110. Innocent — not guilty 111. Inspire — motivate someone 112. Intense — very strong 113. Interpret — explain the meaning of something 114. Intricate — complicated; having many details 115. Intuitive — understood naturally without needing much explanation 116. Irrelevant — not related to the topic 117. Judicious — wise; showing good judgment 118. Keen — eager; very interested 119. Legitimate — lawful; valid 120. Liberal — open-minded; accepting different ideas 🧠 Mini study trick Pour chaque mot, essaie de mémoriser 3 choses : Word → Simple meaning → Example Example: Alleviate → reduce → Medicine can alleviate pain.

🦠 MICROBIOLOGY — WEEK 1 STUDY NOTES Microbiology Foundations Assigned reading: 1.1 What Our Ancestors Knew 1.2 A Systematic Approach 1.3 Types of Microorganisms 3.1 Spontaneous Generation 3.2 Foundations of Modern Cell Theor/y 1.1 What Our Ancestors Knew First: What is microbiology? Microbiology = the study of very small organisms and infectious agents. Microorganism / microbe = an organism that is generally too small to see without a microscope. Examples include: * Bacteria * Archaea * Fungi such as yeast and molds * Protozoa * Microscopic algae * Some parasites Viruses are also studied in microbiology, although viruses are acellular, meaning they are not made of cells. Important idea Microbes are NOT automatically bad. Many microbes are harmless or helpful. They: * help produce food * live naturally in and on our bodies * help ecosystems function * can be used to make medicines and other products Only some microbes cause disease. 🍞 Humans Used Microbes Before They Knew Microbes Existed Humans were using microorganisms for thousands of years before microscopes existed. One of the biggest examples is: Fermentation Fermentation = microorganisms change sugars/carbohydrates into substances such as: * alcohol * gases * organic acids Microbes involved can include: bacteria + yeast + molds Humans used fermentation to make: * bread * cheese * yogurt * beer * wine * pickled vegetables Easy example Yeast eats/metabolizes carbohydrates in bread dough. ↓ Yeast produces carbon dioxide (CO₂). ↓ Gas becomes trapped in the dough. ↓ Bread rises. Remember Fermentation = microbes changing sugars. ⸻ 🧊 Ötzi the Iceman Ötzi was a preserved human mummy approximately 5,300 years old. Scientists found evidence that he had: * Trichuris trichiura → a parasitic worm * Borrelia burgdorferi → bacterium that causes Lyme disease He also carried a fungus called Fomitopsis betulinus, which has laxative and antibiotic properties. Why does this matter? It shows that ancient people were trying to treat disease long before they understood microorganisms. ⸻ 🦠 Early Ideas About Disease Before microscopes, people didn’t know exactly what caused disease. Some cultures believed disease came from: * supernatural forces * angry gods * fate * bad air But some people began to realize that disease might spread between people. ⸻ Quarantine Ancient societies sometimes separated sick people from healthy people. This is called: Quarantine = separating potentially infected people to prevent disease spread. Even though they didn’t know what bacteria or viruses were, they understood that some diseases could spread. ⸻ 🚿 Sanitation Ancient civilizations also developed ways to improve sanitation. Examples included: * clean-water systems * drainage systems * sewers * aqueducts This was important because removing human waste and providing cleaner water can reduce disease transmission. ⸻ Important People From Early Medicine Hippocrates Who? Greek physician. Important idea: Disease had natural causes, rather than always being caused by supernatural forces. He is commonly called: “Father of Western Medicine.” Remember Hippocrates → disease has natural causes. ⸻ Thucydides Thucydides survived the Athenian plague. He noticed that people who survived the disease usually did not become sick from the same disease again while caring for infected people. This was an early observation of: Immunity Immunity = the body’s ability to resist a particular infection/disease. Remember Thucydides → early idea of immunity. ⸻ Marcus Terentius Varro Varro proposed that extremely tiny creatures that could not be seen might cause disease. He described tiny creatures entering the body through the: * mouth * nose This was an important idea because microscopes did not yet exist. Remember Varro → invisible tiny creatures may cause disease. ⸻ Ibn Sina / Avicenna Ibn Sina wrote the important medical work: Canon of Medicine He described ideas involving: * contagion * spread of disease * transmission through breath * isolation of sick people His work contributed to ideas that later became important for quarantine and infectious-disease control. ⸻ 🔬 Birth of Microbiology The development of the microscope completely changed science. For the first time, scientists could actually see microorganisms. ⸻ Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Extremely important name. In 1675, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek used powerful simple microscopes to observe tiny organisms. He called them: “animalcules” Today we know that some of the organisms he observed were: * bacteria * protists Remember Leeuwenhoek → first to describe bacteria/microorganisms seen through a microscope. Think: Leeuwenhoek = LOOKED at microbes. ⸻ ⭐ Golden Age of Microbiology Approximately: 1857–1914 During this period, scientists made major discoveries connecting microorganisms with: * fermentation * disease * medicine * infection Two huge names: Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch You are going to see both names repeatedly in microbiology. ⸻ Louis Pasteur Pasteur showed that microorganisms are responsible for fermentation. He also developed: Pasteurization Pasteurization = using controlled heat to kill/reduce microorganisms that cause spoilage or disease. He also worked on vaccines, including a vaccine against: rabies Pasteur will become especially important again in Section 3.1. Remember Pasteur → fermentation → pasteurization → vaccines → helped prove germ theory → disproved spontaneous generation ⸻ Robert Koch Koch showed that particular microbes could cause particular diseases. He identified microorganisms associated with diseases including: * anthrax * tuberculosis * cholera Remember Koch → specific microbe → specific disease. ⸻ 🧪 Basic Microbiology Laboratory Tools You don’t need to master these yet, but recognize the terms. Microscope → magnifies microbes. Stains/dyes → add color/contrast so microorganisms are easier to see. Growth media → nutrients/material used to grow microorganisms in the laboratory. Petri dish → shallow dish commonly used to hold growth media. Test tube → can contain liquid or solid/semi-solid growth media. Bunsen burner → flame that can be used during laboratory sterilization procedures. These will make much more sense once you start doing microbiology lab work. ⸻ 1.2 A Systematic Approach Now we move from discovering microbes to: “How do scientists organize and name all these different organisms?” ⸻ Taxonomy Definition Taxonomy = classification, description, identification, and naming of living organisms. Think: Taxonomy = biological organization system. ⸻ Carolus Linnaeus Linnaeus developed an important system for classifying organisms. The main levels used in classification include: Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species A common memory trick: K P C O F G S King Philip Came Over For Good Soup You should know the order. ⸻ Species Species is the most specific/basic taxonomic level in this hierarchy. Example: Homo sapiens Homo = genus sapiens = species ⸻ Binomial Nomenclature Very important term. Binomial = two names. Every organism receives a scientific name consisting of: Genus + species Example: Homo sapiens Rules: Genus * first letter CAPITALIZED species * lowercase Both should normally be italicized when typed. Correct: Homo sapiens Not: Homo Sapiens ❌ homo sapiens ❌ Homo Sapiens ❌ ⸻ 🌳 Phylogeny Phylogeny = evolutionary relationship/history between organisms. Scientists can represent these relationships with a: Phylogenetic tree A phylogenetic tree shows how organisms are believed to be evolutionarily related. Organisms with a more recent common ancestor are considered more closely related. ⸻ Classification Changed Over Time Scientific classification did not stay the same. Linnaeus Originally divided nature into kingdoms including: * animals * plants * minerals The mineral kingdom was later abandoned. ⸻ Ernst Haeckel Added: Protista for many unicellular organisms. He later proposed Monera for organisms lacking nuclei. Remember: Haeckel → Protista ⸻ Robert Whittaker Developed a five-kingdom system: Animalia Plantae Fungi Protista Monera ⸻ 🧬 Carl Woese — VERY IMPORTANT Carl Woese used differences in: ribosomal RNA (rRNA) to study evolutionary relationships. His work helped establish the modern: THREE-DOMAIN SYSTEM 🟠 Bacteria 🟣 Archaea 🔵 Eukarya This is very important for your Week 1 material. Memorize: BAE Bacteria Archaea Eukarya ⸻ Bergey’s Manuals These are important references used in bacteriology. They help scientists: * classify bacteria * identify bacteria You probably don’t need every detail yet, but recognize the name: Bergey’s Manual ⸻ How Can Bacteria Be Identified? Scientists can identify microorganisms using things such as: Biochemical tests Look at chemical/metabolic characteristics. DNA/RNA analysis Examines genetic material. Serological tests Use reactions involving antibodies/antigens. ⸻ 1.3 Types of Microorganisms This section is VERY IMPORTANT. You need to understand the major groups. ⸻ 🌎 Three Domains of Life Again: 1. Bacteria 2. Archaea 3. Eukarya ⸻ Before We Continue: Two Big Cell Types You will hear these words constantly: PROKARYOTE vs EUKARYOTE Prokaryotic cells DO NOT have a membrane-bound nucleus. Bacteria = prokaryotic Archaea = prokaryotic Eukaryotic cells DO have a membrane-bound nucleus. Examples include: * animals * plants * fungi * protozoa * algae Super important: Prokaryote = NO nucleus Eukaryote = HAS nucleus ⸻ 🦠 BACTERIA Bacteria are: * unicellular * prokaryotic * found almost everywhere Some bacteria are helpful. Some bacteria can cause disease. Many bacteria have cell walls. You’ll learn much more about bacterial structures later. ⸻ 🌋 ARCHAEA Archaea are also: * unicellular * prokaryotic Like bacteria, they do not have a nucleus. BUT: Archaea ≠ Bacteria They differ in: * genetics * evolutionary history * metabolic pathways * cell membrane composition * cell wall composition Archaea occur in many environments. Important textbook point No archaea have been identified as human pathogens. Remember Bacteria + Archaea = Prokaryotes ⸻ 🔵 EUKARYA Eukaryotic microorganisms include: Algae Protozoa Fungi Helminths These have eukaryotic cells. ⸻ 🌿 ALGAE Algae can be: * unicellular * multicellular They are similar to plants in an important way: They perform photosynthesis. Photosynthesis = using light energy to make chemical energy/food. Remember: Algae → photosynthesis. ⸻ 🧫 PROTOZOA Protozoa are: * unicellular * eukaryotic * structurally more complex than bacteria Many are capable of movement. Remember Protozoa → single-celled eukaryotes, often motile. Motile = able to move. ⸻ 🍄 FUNGI Fungi studied in microbiology include: Yeasts Usually unicellular. Molds Usually grow as multicellular filament-like structures. Examples of fungi can be microscopic even though other fungi, such as mushrooms, are large. Remember Fungi → yeast + molds ⸻ 🪱 HELMINTHS Helminths = parasitic worms. You may think: “A worm isn’t microscopic. Why is it in microbiology?” Good question. Adult worms may be large enough to see. BUT their: * eggs * larvae can be microscopic. Therefore they are studied in microbiology. ⸻ 🦠 VIRUSES Viruses are different from cellular organisms. Viruses are ACELLULAR. Acellular = not made of cells. Viruses cannot reproduce independently. They require a: Host cell to reproduce. Remember Virus = acellular + requires host to reproduce ⸻ ⭐ Major Microorganism Comparison Group Cell type Nucleus? Important idea Bacteria Prokaryotic ❌ Some cause disease Archaea Prokaryotic ❌ Different from bacteria; no known human pathogens Fungi Eukaryotic ✅ Yeasts + molds Protozoa Eukaryotic ✅ Unicellular, often motile Algae Eukaryotic ✅ Photosynthesis Helminths Eukaryotic ✅ Parasitic worms Viruses Acellular No cell Need host to reproduce 🔥 This table is worth knowing very well. ⸻ 3.1 Spontaneous Generation This is mainly about one historical question: Where does life come from? People once believed: Spontaneous Generation Spontaneous generation = the belief that living organisms can arise from nonliving material. Examples people once believed: rotting meat → maggots mud → frogs old food → microorganisms Today we know this idea is incorrect. ⸻ Francesco Redi Redi tested whether maggots appeared spontaneously from meat. He compared meat that flies could reach with meat protected from flies. Result Maggots appeared when flies could access the meat. This suggested: Maggots came from flies — not directly from the meat. Remember Redi → meat + flies + maggots ⸻ John Needham Needham performed experiments with broth. He boiled broth and then observed microbial growth afterward. He interpreted this as evidence supporting: Spontaneous generation. Remember Needham → supported spontaneous generation. ⸻ Lazzaro Spallanzani Spallanzani disagreed. He boiled broth for longer and sealed the containers more carefully. The sealed broth did not show microbial growth. He argued that microbes came from contamination from the environment rather than being generated spontaneously. Remember Spallanzani → argued against spontaneous generation. ⸻ 🦢 Louis Pasteur’s Swan-Neck Flask Experiment This is VERY IMPORTANT. Pasteur used flasks with long curved necks. Why the curved neck? Air could enter the flask. BUT: Dust and microorganisms became trapped in the curved neck. So the broth remained uncontaminated. When microorganisms could reach the broth, microbial growth occurred. Conclusion Microorganisms did NOT spontaneously appear. They came from microorganisms already present in the environment. Pasteur helped establish the principle: “Life comes from life.” Exam memory Pasteur → swan-neck flask → disproved spontaneous generation. ⸻ 3.2 Foundations of Modern Cell Theory Now we move from: “Where do microbes come from?” to: “What is life made of?” Answer: CELLS ⸻ 🧬 Cell Theory The textbook describes the development of the idea that cells are the fundamental units of life. The central ideas are: 1. All living organisms are made of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the fundamental/basic unit of life. 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells. Think: Life → cells → cells come from cells. ⸻ Robert Hooke In the 1660s, Robert Hooke examined cork with a microscope. He saw tiny compartments and called them: “cells” Remember Hooke → named/described cells. Don’t mix him up with Leeuwenhoek: Hooke → cells Leeuwenhoek → microorganisms ⸻ Matthias Schleiden Schleiden studied plants. He concluded that: Plants are made of cells. Remember: Schleiden → plants ⸻ Theodor Schwann Schwann studied animals. He concluded: Animals are made of cells. Remember: Schwann → animals ⸻ Robert Remak Remak provided evidence that cells form through the division of existing cells. ⸻ Rudolf Virchow Virchow strongly promoted the idea: Cells come from other cells. So: New cells do not spontaneously appear. ⸻ Easy Scientist Memory Hooke → saw/named cells Schleiden → plants Schwann → animals Remak/Virchow → cells come from existing cells ⸻ 🧬 Endosymbiotic Theory This sounds difficult, but the basic idea is simple. Endosymbiotic theory says: Mitochondria and chloroplasts were originally bacteria-like prokaryotic cells. A larger ancestral cell engulfed them. Instead of being destroyed, the cells developed a mutually beneficial relationship. Eventually, the engulfed bacteria evolved into: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts inside eukaryotic cells. ⸻ Evidence for Endosymbiotic Theory Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities to bacteria. They have: Their own DNA Their DNA resembles bacterial DNA. Their own ribosomes Their ribosomes resemble bacterial ribosomes. They reproduce through a process similar to binary fission Binary fission is a major way bacteria reproduce. Easy version Mitochondria and chloroplasts act strangely like bacteria because their ancestors were bacteria. ⸻ Lynn Margulis Lynn Margulis helped develop and promote the modern endosymbiotic theory. Remember Margulis → endosymbiotic theory ⸻ 🦠 Miasma Theory vs Germ Theory This distinction is very important. Miasma Theory Old idea: Disease comes from “bad air” associated with rotting material. Think: Bad smell → disease. This theory was eventually replaced. ⸻ Germ Theory Germ theory = many diseases are caused by microorganisms. Think: Microbe enters/infects body → disease Scientists whose work helped establish germ theory included: * Ignaz Semmelweis * John Snow * Louis Pasteur * Joseph Lister * Robert Koch ⸻ 🧼 Ignaz Semmelweis Semmelweis worked around childbirth. He noticed that patients treated by doctors and medical students had much higher rates of puerperal fever than patients cared for by midwives. Medical students often went from: autopsies → examining living patients without washing their hands. Semmelweis introduced handwashing with chlorinated lime solution. Result Maternal deaths fell dramatically. Remember Semmelweis → HANDWASHING ⸻ 💧 John Snow John Snow investigated cholera outbreaks in London. He connected cholera cases with: contaminated water. His work helped show that disease wasn’t simply coming from “bad air.” He is important in the history of: Epidemiology Epidemiology = study of disease patterns and spread in populations. Remember Snow → cholera + contaminated water + epidemiology ⸻ Joseph Lister Lister applied ideas about microorganisms to surgery. He promoted: * handwashing * cleanliness * sterilization * antiseptic techniques He used carbolic acid (phenol) to reduce infections during surgery. Result Surgical infections decreased. Remember Lister → antiseptic surgery ⸻ Robert Koch — Again Koch developed: Koch’s postulates These helped scientists determine whether a particular microorganism causes a particular disease. Basic idea: specific microorganism → specific disease You will learn Koch’s postulates in more detail later. ⸻ 🔥 WEEK 1 — PEOPLE YOU NEED TO KNOW Scientist/person Remember THIS Hippocrates Disease has natural causes Thucydides Early observation of immunity Varro Invisible creatures may cause disease Leeuwenhoek Observed microbes/bacteria Linnaeus Taxonomy + naming organisms Haeckel Added Protista Whittaker Five kingdoms Woese Three domains; used rRNA Redi Meat + flies + maggots Needham Supported spontaneous generation Spallanzani Evidence against spontaneous generation Pasteur Swan-neck flask; fermentation; germ theory Hooke Described/named cells Schleiden Plants are made of cells Schwann Animals are made of cells Remak/Virchow Cells come from cells Margulis Endosymbiotic theory Semmelweis Handwashing John Snow Cholera + contaminated water Lister Antiseptic surgery Koch Specific microbes cause specific diseases ⸻ 🚨 THE 15 THINGS I WOULD MEMORIZE FIRST Don’t try to memorize every paragraph tonight. Start here: 1. Microbiology = study of microorganisms. 2. Fermentation uses microbes to convert sugars into products such as alcohol, gases, or acids. 3. Leeuwenhoek observed microorganisms. 4. Pasteur and Koch were major scientists during the Golden Age of Microbiology. 5. Taxonomy = classification and naming of organisms. 6. Binomial nomenclature = Genus + species. 7. Three domains = Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya. 8. Bacteria + Archaea = prokaryotes. 9. Prokaryote = no membrane-bound nucleus. 10. Eukaryote = has membrane-bound nucleus. 11. Virus = acellular and needs a host to reproduce. 12. Spontaneous generation = life arises from nonliving matter. 13. Pasteur’s swan-neck flask helped disprove spontaneous generation. 14. Cell theory = organisms are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and cells come from existing cells. 15. Germ theory = microorganisms can cause disease. ⸻ 🧠 Super-Simple Week 1 Mental Map Think about the entire week’s reading as one story: PART 1 — Humans discover microbes People used microbes before knowing they existed. ↓ Leeuwenhoek sees them. ↓ Scientists begin studying them. ⸻ PART 2 — Scientists organize microbes Linnaeus → Taxonomy ↓ Woese → 3 domains ↓ Bacteria | Archaea | Eukarya ⸻ PART 3 — Scientists ask where life comes from People believed in spontaneous generation. ↓ Redi + Spallanzani question it. ↓ Pasteur disproves it. ↓ Life comes from existing life. ⸻ PART 4 — Scientists understand cells Hooke → cells ↓ Schleiden → plants Schwann → animals ↓ Remak/Virchow → cells come from cells ↓ Cell Theory ⸻ PART 5 — Scientists understand disease Old: Miasma = bad air causes disease ❌ ↓ New: Germ theory = microorganisms can cause disease ✅ ↓ Semmelweis → handwashing Snow → contaminated water Lister → antiseptic surgery Pasteur → microbes Koch → specific microbe causes specific disease

The Invisible Man: Chapters 1–12 Review

Section 8 Unit 110: Chatting: Invite Someone To Visit

The Invisible Man Study Guide (Chapters 1–12)

Invitation, valid ID

UIL Social Studies Grades 5 & 6 Invitational 2017-2018