PSYCHOLOGY TEST #1 — COMPLETE STUDY NOTES
Test Format (40 Marks)
Part A: Fill in the Blank — 10 marks (Knowledge)
Part B: Identification — 10 marks (Inquiry)
Part C: Short Answer — 10 marks (Communication)
Part D: Theory Application — 10 marks (Application)
1. THE PHYSICAL HUMAN BRAIN
Frontal Lobe
Functions: Controls higher thinking skills, decision-making, problem-solving, planning, attention, intelligence, personality, emotions and voluntary movements.
Associated disorders: ADHD, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
Damage can cause: Paralysis, mood changes, personality changes, difficulty speaking, loss of spontaneity and unusual social behaviour.
Remember: Frontal = Thinking and personality.
Parietal Lobe
Functions: Processes sensory information, especially touch. Helps with spatial awareness, balance, recognizing objects and understanding surroundings.
Associated disorders: Alzheimer's disease, ADHD and schizophrenia.
Damage can cause: Sensory difficulties, disorientation, poor coordination and difficulty recognizing or locating objects and body parts.
Remember: Parietal = Touch and surroundings.
Occipital Lobe
Functions: Processes visual information, including colours, shapes, movement and objects. Responsible for vision.
Associated disorders: Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism and depression.
Damage can cause: Blindness, visual hallucinations and difficulty seeing colours or movement.
Remember: Occipital = Vision and seeing.
Temporal Lobe
Functions: Responsible for hearing, recognizing faces and objects, understanding language, learning, memory and emotions.
Associated disorders: Schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease and autism.
Damage can cause: Memory loss, speech difficulties, difficulty understanding language, difficulty recognizing faces and objects, and changes in behaviour.
Remember: Temporal = Hearing and memory.
Cerebellum
Functions: Controls balance, posture, coordination, voluntary movements, reflexes, motor skills and timing.
Associated disorders: Autism, schizophrenia and dyslexia.
Damage can cause: Poor coordination, tremors, dizziness, difficulty walking and slurred speech.
Remember: Cerebellum = Balance and coordination.
Brain Stem
Functions: Controls automatic body functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and digestion. Also helps regulate sleep, alertness and balance.
Associated disorders: Autism and sleep disorders such as insomnia.
Damage can cause: Organ problems, sleep difficulties, balance problems and serious problems with automatic body functions.
Remember: Brain Stem = Keeps you alive.
Quick Memorization:
Frontal = Thinking.
Parietal = Touch.
Occipital = Vision.
Temporal = Hearing and memory.
Cerebellum = Balance.
Brain Stem = Automatic functions.
2. SIGMUND FREUD
Who was Sigmund Freud?
Austrian neurologist and psychologist.
Founder of psychoanalysis.
Believed the unconscious mind strongly influences human behaviour.
Believed childhood experiences help shape personality.
Freud's 7 Main Theories
1. Psychoanalysis
A method of studying and understanding the unconscious mind.
Freud believed hidden thoughts, feelings and childhood experiences influence behaviour.
Used therapy to help people understand their unconscious thoughts.
Example: Someone may have a fear without understanding where it originally came from.
2. Three-Part Psyche
Freud believed personality was made up of three parts: the Id, Ego and Superego.
Id
Represents biological wants and desires.
Follows the pleasure principle.
Wants immediate satisfaction without thinking about consequences.
Example: Eating all the cookies because you want them.
Remember: Id = Wants.
Ego
Balances the Id and Superego.
Follows the reality principle.
Makes realistic decisions and considers consequences.
Example: Deciding to eat one cookie instead of all of them.
Remember: Ego = Reality.
Superego
Represents your conscience.
Tells you what is right and wrong.
Develops through experiences, rules and values.
Example: Knowing you shouldn't take someone else's cookies.
Remember: Superego = Morals.
3. Oedipus Complex
Freud believed young children experience unconscious feelings of attachment toward the parent of the opposite sex and rivalry toward the same-sex parent.
Named after the Greek character Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother.
Remember: Opposite-sex parent = Attachment; same-sex parent = Rivalry.
4. Sexual Desires (Libido)
Freud believed sexual energy, called libido, influences human personality and behaviour.
He believed frustration of desires could affect mental health.
The term Freudian slip comes from his ideas about unconscious thoughts accidentally appearing in speech.
Example: Accidentally saying what you were actually thinking instead of what you meant to say.
5. Examination of Dreams
Freud believed dreams were a window into the unconscious mind.
He thought dreams revealed hidden thoughts, feelings and desires.
Example: A dream might represent a hidden fear or worry.
6. Stages of Development
Freud believed personality develops through five stages.
Each stage focuses on a different area of pleasure.
Oral Stage (0–18 months): Pleasure comes from the mouth, such as sucking and feeding.
Anal Stage (18 months–3 years): Focuses on toilet training and control.
Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Focuses on the body and awareness of gender differences.
Latency Stage (6–puberty): Sexual urges are less noticeable. Children focus more on friendships, school and learning.
Genital Stage (puberty–adulthood): Focuses on mature relationships and sexual interests.
Remember the order: Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital.
7. Defence Mechanisms
Freud believed the mind uses defence mechanisms to protect itself from uncomfortable thoughts and feelings.
They happen unconsciously.
Important examples:
Denial: Refusing to accept reality. Example: Saying you didn't fail a test when you did.
Repression: Pushing upsetting memories out of awareness.
Projection: Blaming others for your own feelings. Example: Calling someone jealous when you are jealous.
Displacement: Taking your feelings out on someone else. Example: Being upset at school and snapping at a family member.
Rationalization: Making excuses for behaviour. Example: Saying a test was unfair because you didn't study.
How Freud Applies to Psychology
Helps explain how the unconscious mind influences behaviour.
Helps explain how childhood experiences affect personality.
Studies how dreams and hidden feelings may affect people.
Explains how defence mechanisms protect people from uncomfortable emotions.
Influenced the development of psychotherapy and talk therapy.
3. CONDITIONING
Conditioning is a type of learning where behaviour changes through experiences and associations.
There are two main types: Classical and Operant Conditioning.
A. Classical Conditioning
Learning through association.
Happens when someone connects two stimuli.
A person learns to associate something with a natural response.
The response eventually becomes automatic.
Example: Pavlov's Dogs
Pavlov rang a bell before giving dogs food.
Food naturally caused the dogs to salivate.
Eventually, the dogs started salivating just from hearing the bell.
Four Important Terms:
US (Unconditioned Stimulus): Something that naturally causes a reaction.
UR (Unconditioned Response): The natural reaction to the stimulus.
CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Something originally neutral that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
CR (Conditioned Response): The learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus.
Example from your notes: Toilet and Shower
Every time someone flushes a toilet, the shower becomes very hot. Eventually, the person jumps back just from hearing the toilet flush.
US: Hot water.
UR: Jumping back.
CS: Toilet flushing.
CR: Jumping back when hearing the toilet flush.
Remember: Classical = Association.
B. Operant Conditioning
Learning through rewards and punishments.
Behaviour changes depending on its consequences.
People learn which behaviours lead to positive or negative outcomes.
Usually involves voluntary behaviours.
Four Types of Operant Conditioning:
1. Positive Reinforcement
Adding something pleasant to increase a behaviour.
Example: Getting a reward for good grades.
2. Negative Reinforcement
Removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour.
Example: Homework stops once you finish your chores.
3. Positive Punishment
Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behaviour.
Example: Getting extra chores for breaking a rule.
4. Negative Punishment
Removing something pleasant to decrease a behaviour.
Example: Losing phone privileges for breaking a rule.
Important to Remember:
Positive = Adding something.
Negative = Removing something.
Reinforcement = Increases behaviour.
Punishment = Decreases behaviour.
Positive does NOT mean good, and negative does NOT mean bad.
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical = Learning through association.
Operant = Learning through consequences.
Classical = Usually automatic responses.
Operant = Usually voluntary behaviours.
Classical example = Pavlov's dogs.
Operant example = Getting rewarded for good grades.
4. COGNITIVE BIAS
What is Cognitive Bias?
The way we personally see and interpret the world.
Everyone processes information differently.
Our perceptions can influence our behaviour and decisions.
Many biases happen unconsciously, without us realizing.
Example: Two people experience the same situation but remember and interpret it differently.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to look for and remember information that supports what you already believe.
People often ignore information that goes against their beliefs.
Example: You believe someone is rude, so you only notice when they act rude and ignore when they are nice.
Tests That Measure Cognitive Bias
1. Rorschach Inkblot Test
People look at inkblots and explain what they see.
Their interpretations are recorded and analyzed.
Remember: Inkblots = What do you see?
2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
People look at a series of pictures and create stories about them.
The stories are analyzed to understand their thoughts and feelings.
Remember: Pictures = Tell a story.
3. Word Association Test
People are given words and respond with the first word that comes to mind.
Responses can be analyzed to explore subconscious thoughts.
Remember: Words = First thing that comes to mind.
4. Graphology
The study of handwriting and how it may relate to personality traits.
Remember: Graphology = Handwriting.
5. ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES
Ethics are rules that protect people who participate in psychological research.
Five Ethical Principles
1. Minimizing Harm
- Participants should not experience unnecessary physical or emotional harm.
2. Informed Consent
- Participants must understand the study and agree to participate.
3. Confidentiality and Anonymity
- Personal information and identities must be protected.
4. Avoiding Deception
- Researchers should not mislead participants unnecessarily.
5. Right to Withdraw
- Participants can leave the study at any time without being forced to stay.
Remember: Harm, Consent, Privacy, Honesty, Withdraw.
Controversial Experiments
1. Milgram Obedience Study (1963)
Researcher: Stanley Milgram.
Purpose: To investigate how far people would obey authority, even when it went against their conscience.
What happened?
Participants were told they were taking part in a learning experiment.
They were assigned the role of the teacher.
They were instructed to give increasing electric shocks to a learner for incorrect answers.
The learner was actually an actor, and the shocks were fake.
Many participants continued because an authority figure told them to.
Main takeaway:
- People may obey authority even when they believe their actions are wrong.
Ethical issues:
- Deception and psychological stress.
2. Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)
Researcher: Philip Zimbardo.
Purpose: To investigate how people behave when placed in positions of power or powerless situations.
What happened?
Participants were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards.
The experiment was designed to imitate a prison.
Some guards began treating prisoners unfairly.
The experiment became harmful and was stopped early.
Main takeaway:
- Situations and social roles can influence human behaviour.
Ethical issues:
- Psychological harm, lack of protection and insufficient oversight.
Difference Between the Two Experiments
Milgram = Obedience to authority.
Stanford = Power and social roles.
Milgram = Stanley Milgram, 1963.
Stanford = Philip Zimbardo, 1971.
6. ALFRED ADLER AND CARL JUNG
Both were psychologists who studied personality. They were originally influenced by Freud but disagreed with some of his ideas.
A. Alfred Adler
Who Was Alfred Adler?
Austrian psychologist born in 1870.
Founder of Individual Psychology.
Believed people are motivated by the desire to improve themselves and overcome feelings of inferiority.
1. Inferiority Complex
Adler believed people naturally experience feelings of inferiority or not being good enough.
People try to overcome these feelings through self-improvement and achievement.
Example: Someone who struggles in school works harder to improve their grades.
2. Compensation
Trying to overcome a weakness by improving another area of life.
Example: Someone who struggles with sports focuses on becoming better at music.
3. Napoleon Complex
Describes someone who overcompensates because they feel inferior due to a perceived disadvantage.
Often associated with people who are shorter in height.
Example: Someone acts overly aggressive to prove themselves.
4. Fictional Finalism (Fictional Story)
Adler believed people create an idea or goal about who they want to become at a young age.
This imagined goal influences their decisions and behaviour throughout life.
Example: A child believes they will become a doctor and makes decisions based on that goal.
5. Birth Order
Adler believed birth order could influence personality and behaviour.
Being the oldest, middle or youngest child may affect how someone develops.
6. Three Major Life Tasks
Occupational Tasks: Career, education and work.
Societal Tasks: Friendships and social connections.
Love Tasks: Relationships, marriage and family.
Remember: Work, Friends, Love.
B. Carl Jung
Who Was Carl Jung?
Swiss psychologist born in 1875.
Originally influenced by Freud.
Agreed that the unconscious mind influences behaviour.
Disagreed with Freud's strong focus on sexuality.
Often included spirituality and the soul in his psychological theories.
1. Collective Unconscious
Jung believed all humans share a deeper unconscious mind.
It contains universal symbols and patterns passed down through generations.
These universal patterns are called archetypes.
Example: Different cultures have similar ideas about heroes, mothers and villains.
2. Introvert vs. Extrovert
- Jung developed a personality theory based on where people direct their mental energy.
Introverts:
Focus their energy inward toward themselves.
Prefer reflecting on their own thoughts and feelings.
Draw energy from their inner world.
Extroverts:
Focus their energy outward toward people and their surroundings.
Direct their attention toward the outside world.
Important: Introvert does not automatically mean shy, and extrovert does not simply mean outgoing.
3. Psychological Balance
Jung believed people need balance between opposite personality traits.
Understanding different sides of your personality helps with personal development and mental health.
Difference Between Freud, Adler and Jung
Freud = Unconscious mind, childhood experiences and sexual energy.
Adler = Inferiority, compensation and self-improvement.
Jung = Collective unconscious, archetypes and introversion/extroversion.
MOST IMPORTANT THINGS TO MEMORIZE
If you are short on time, make sure you know these:
Brain Parts
Frontal = Thinking.
Parietal = Touch.
Occipital = Vision.
Temporal = Hearing and memory.
Cerebellum = Balance.
Brain Stem = Automatic functions.
Freud
Id = Wants.
Ego = Reality.
Superego = Morals.
Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital.
Defence mechanisms = Protect the mind from uncomfortable thoughts and feelings.
Conditioning
Classical = Association.
Operant = Consequences.
Positive = Add.
Negative = Remove.
Reinforcement = Increase behaviour.
Punishment = Decrease behaviour.
Cognitive Bias
Confirmation bias = Looking for information that supports your beliefs.
Rorschach = Inkblots.
TAT = Pictures and stories.
Word Association = Words.
Graphology = Handwriting.
Ethics
Minimizing harm.
Informed consent.
Confidentiality and anonymity.
Avoiding deception.
Right to withdraw.
Experiments
Milgram = Obedience to authority.
Stanford = Power and social roles.
Adler
Inferiority complex = Feeling inferior.
Compensation = Overcoming weaknesses.
Fictional finalism = Goals that guide behaviour.
Three tasks = Occupational, societal and love.
Jung
Collective unconscious = Shared unconscious patterns.
Archetypes = Universal symbols and characters.
Introvert = Focuses inward.
Extrovert = Focuses outward.
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